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AUTHOR: 


ABBOTT,  FRANK 
FROST 


TITLE: 


SHORT  HISTORY  OF 
ROME  .   .   . 


PL  A  CE: 


CHICAGO 


DA  TE: 


1906 


Restrictions  on  Use: 


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1.  Rome— Hist. 


Library  of  Congress 


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DG210.An     Copyright 


Abbott,  Frank  Frost,  I86O-1924, 

A  short  history  of  Rome,  by  Frank  Frost  Abbott  ... 
Chicago,  bcott,  Foresman  and  company,  1906. 

3M  p.     front.,  ilhis.,  plates,  maps,  plans.    19}'". 
"Brief  list  of  books  for  a  school  library" :  p.  290-291. 


6-29990 


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FILMED  BY:    RESEARCH  PUBLICATIONS.  INC  WOODBRIDGE.  CT 


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FRANK   FROST   ABBOTT//  fi^^ 

Professok  in  The  Univeksity  ok  Chicago,    author  of 
•  ROHAN  Political  Institutions  ' 


CHLICAQO 
SOOTT,  FOJELBSMAN    AND   OOMPAJSHT 

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A  SHORT 


HISTORY  OF  ROME 


BY 


FRANK    FROST   ABBOIT//  f  i' 


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Pkofessok  in  The  University  of  Chicago.    Adthor  of 
•ROMAN  Political  INSTITUTIONS  •' 


[I 


CHICAQQ 
SOOTT.  FORJBSMAN    AND    COMPANY 

1906 


PREFACE 


.       .       .('lM'.VlU(ilil\  1906.. 


'  i  *    »      % 


TYPOORArMY        PRCSSWOUK— BINDING 

ROBERT    O      LAW    COMPANY 

CHICAGO.    I  LL 


The  primary  purpose  of  this  vohinir  is  to  ^/\\v  tlir  inij)ortant 
facts  of  Roman  histurv,  and  to  hrin^:  out  ch^arlv  their  coiuiection 
with  one  another.  The  author  has  also  aimed  to  put  the  material 
in  a  form  simph'  and  eompaet  eiiou'.>;h  to  enahk^  teachers  who 
use  the  book  to  cover  the  entire  period  to  the  rei<^n  of  Charle- 
magne in  the  time  commonly  ^Awn  to  this  hraiuh  of  history. 

Besides  showino^  the  qualities  wliieh  every  historical  narrative 
should  have,  an  introductory  manual  sliould,  in  the  first  place, 
be  concrete,  and,  in  the  second  place,  it  should  present  the 
facts  in  such  a  way  that  their  logical  sequence  will  be  apparent 
at  once.  It  can  be  made  concrete  by  avoidinjij  abstract  state- 
ments, where  it  is  possible,  and  l)y  usintr  the  personality  of  a 
great  leader,  like  Sulla,  or  (\iesar,  or  (liarlemagne,  in  describing 
the  movement  with  which  lie  was  associated.  In  hke  manner  the 
atmosj)here  of  the  times  may  be  reproduced  by  (pioting  freely 
from  the  sources.  The  second  quality  mentioned,  unity  in  the 
story,  is  still  more  important.  The  student,  as  he  reads,  should 
feel  that  each  lu^w  deyelo])mcnt  wjis  the  natural  outgrowth  of 
the  situation  which  i)receded  it.  This  method  of  treating  the 
sul)ject  not  only  gives  him  some  idea  of  the  real  meaning  of 
history,  but  it  relieves  liim  from  the  painful  task  of  memo- 
rizing a  series  of  loosely  connected  incidents.  Furthermore,  a 
history  of  Rome  should  include  in  its  logical  treatment  not  only 
the  story  of  political  development  but  all  sides  of  the  people's 
life.  The  literature,  the  religion,  and  the  social  life  of  a 
particular  period  reflect  its  temper  as  clearly  as  the  form  of 
government  or  the  political  })olicy,  and  should  not  be  treated 
as  separate  topics,  but  should  be  made  a  part  of  the  main  narra- 
tive.    In  this  method  of  presentation  the  reader  will  see  clearly 

3 


4  '* 


4  ROM A\    HISTORY 

that  tht'  form  which  these  |)has(vs  of  Roniaii  life  took  from  j^enera- 
tion  to  geiK-ration  was  a  natural  expression  of  the  tendenev  of 
the  times.  An  earnest  etlort  has  heen  made  to  foihjw  these 
canhnal  principles  in  the  preparation  of  this  hook. 

'Vhv  maps  in  black  and  white  show  the  scene  of  operations  for 
each  of  the  important  wars,  ^irivin^^  only  those  i)laces  which  are 
mentioned  in  the  text.  I'he  colored  maps  illustrate  the  ^n^owth 
of  tlie  Em[)ire  from  one  |)erio<l  to  another,  its  disinteirration,  and 
the  ultimate  reor*,'anization  of  western  Euroj)e.  It  is  ho|)ed  that 
the  scries  last  mentioned  will  let  the  student  see  at  a  glance  the 
line  of  development  or  contraction,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  some 
of  the  reasons  which  determined  it.  To  assist  him  in  keeping 
the  general  trend  of  e\ents  clearly  in  mind,  eacli  chai)ter  has  a 
brief  analysis  at  tlie  beginning  and  a  summary  of  its  contents 
at  the  end.  I'he  illustrations,  unless  otherwise  indicated,  are 
from  pliot()gra|)hs.  The  reproduction  of  a  Roman  galley  is  taken 
from  I lerschel's  Fn^tUi/uis  with  the  kind  permission  of  the  author. 
The  two  designs  on  the  front  cover  symbolize  respectively  the 
two  great  j)erio(ls  of  Roman  liistory— the  development  of  pagan 
Rome  with  its  conquest  of  the  world  by  the  force  of  arms,  and 
the  triumph  of  Christianity,  culminating  in  the  coronation  of 
Charlemagne  by  the  Pope  in  St.  Peter's.  The  Roman  eagle  is 
copied  from  a  sepulchral  momimeiit  now  in  the  Palazzo  Albani 
at  Rome;  the  monogram  of  Christianity,  which  is  made  up  of 
the  first  two  letters  of  the  (ireek  form  of  Christ's  name  stand- 
ing between  Alpha  and  Omega,  is  taken  from  a  gem  belonging 
to  the  period  subsequent  to  Conslantine. 

This  volume  is  intended  primarily  for  the  pupil,  and  it  is 
believed  that  he  will  find  no  difficulty  in  using  without  aid  all 
the  material  which  is  found  in  it.  Issued  simultaneously  with  it 
is  a  small  Handbook  w  hich  contains  hints,  questions,  and  other 
helps  for  teachers. 

For  many  valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions  in  preparing 
this  volume  the  author  is  greatly  indebted  to  Miss  Victoria  Adams 
of  the  Calumet   High  Sch(X)l  and  to  IVIr.  A.  F.  Barnard  of  the 


PREFACE 


University  High  School,  Chicago,  to  Mr.  W.  E.  Moffatt  of  the 
Toledo  High  School,  to  Dr.  Mary  B.  Peaks  of  Vassar  College, 
to  Professor  H.  W.  Johnston  of  Indiana  University,  and  to  Mr. 
B.  L.  Ullman,  Dr.  R.  J.  Bonner,  and  Professor  Edward  Capps 
of  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  to  all  of  them  he  wishes  to 
express  his  thanks  for  the  assistance  which  they  have  rendered 
him. 


FRANK    FROST    ABBOTT. 


Chicago,  June,  1906. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
CHAPTER  -  „ 

I.  Introductory  Survey J^ 

11.  The  Land  and  the  People ^  j 

III.  Rome  under  the  Kings ^ 

IV.  The  Conquest  of  Italy 'l'^ 

V.  The  Successful  Struggles  of  the  Plebeians 61 

VI.    Expansion  beyond  the  Sea ° 

VII.    The  Roman  State  and  her  Provinces 114 

VIII.    The  Conquest  of  Gaul  and  of  Asia  Minor 132 

IX.    The  Beginning  of  the  Revolution 143 

X.    The  Death  Struggle  of  the  Republic 167 

■'XI.    The  Establishment   of  the   Empire,   and  the 

Julian  Emperors 

XII.    From  Vespasian  to  Septimius  Severus 197 

XIII*    From  Septimius  Severus  to  Constantine 223 

XIV.    The   Barbarian   Invasions  and  the   Western 

World  in  the  Fifth  Century 237 

XV.    Reorganization  of  the  Empire  in  the  West 256 

Chronological  List  of  Important  Events 277 

Family  of  the  Julian  Emperors ^^6 

Specimen  of  a  Descriptive  Summary  of  Roman  Polit- 
ical Institutions ^^ 

Brief  List  of  Books  for  a  School  Library 290 

, ^f7^ 

Index 


MAPS  AND  PLA-NS 


{Based  in  Part  on   Putzger,  Sprunrr-Sieylin,  Murrai/,  and  Freeman) 

COLORED  MAPS 

■  PAGF 

Italy  about  500  b.  c Faeing     17 

♦Development    of    Roman    TEHRiTcmY    from    509    to 

26-1  R-  c p„,^ng     60 

♦Development    of    Roman    Tehkitohy    from    201    to 

^•"^•^  ^-^ Facing  1 13 

♦Development    of    Roman    Territory    from    133    to 

44  B.  c:  Conquests  of  Caesar  and  Pompey Facing  142 

♦The  Roman  World  under  Augfstis Following  180 

♦The  Roman  World   under  Trajan Following  208 

The  Roman  World  in  the  P^ourth  Century  a.  n. ...  Facing  237 

The  World  in  the  Time  of  Theodoric Facing  256 

Charlemagne's  Empire  and  its  Growth Facing  272 

Europe  in  a.  d.  814 Following  276 

SKETCH  MAPS  AND  PLANS 

The  Servian  City 37 

The  Wars  with  the  Etruscans,  Akqiians,  Volscians, 

and  Sa.mxites 45 

The  War  with  Pyrrhus 55 

Sicily  :  The  First  Punic  War gQ 

The  Second  Punic  War,  the  Illyrian  War,  and  the 

Gallic    Wars Facing     93 

Italy  in  218  b.  c .,  _     95 

Greece  and  Asia  Minor:  The  Wars  with  the  Mace- 
donians and  Antiochus 102 

Plan  of  Carthage m 

Gaul  in  the  Time  of  Caesaii 135 

Asia  Minor  at  the  Close  of  Pompky's  (/onquests 140 

Rome  under  the  Empire Facing.  183 

Plan  of  Constantinople 235 

*  The  maps  marked  with  a  star  show  the  expansion  of  Roman  territorv 
from  one  period  to  another,  until  the  empire  reached  its  greatest  extent. 

9 


ROMAN'    HISTORY 


11 


TTJ.rs  I  RATION'S 


I'AGK 


The  Romax  Fouvm  T*>-T)ay Fk^misfiece 

An  Etht^cw  Saim'TH  \(ir^ 

A  Grkkk    I'empli-:  at   I'aeshm.     

A    Vesial   ViRcnx    (ehom    IIiel^ex.   Forum  Romanum) 

.SEiTLCHitAL   Trx   f<»u   Asin:s    (Kkom    Ih-ELM  X,      Forum 

Uomunum) 

The  Capitolixe  \\\.v 

A    Pl)HTI*»\    OF    THE    M:KV1  AN     WaLI 

Ax   AxciEXT  IxsnuHEi)  Stone 

MOXEMEXT   ShoWINc;    CrHl'LE   ChAIK    and    I'AX'ES     '  FroM 

SCHREIHER,    Mlos) 

The  Ari'iAX  Way  xear   R( »me 

The  Fslam)  ex  the    TiiiER 

Stormixc   a  Town   (From  Schrkiher,  At}as) 

Roman  Glade\  for 

Chafel  IX  House 

A  Romax  Theatre   at   Pomfeii 

Scexe  from   a  Comedy 

ToMH  OF   a   Centurion    (Fr..m   Schreiher,   Mlus) 

ToMiuoF   A   Standard   Hearer    (From  Schreiher,   Atlu^) 

PortdTn    (it   the    Rostra    (From    Huki^-fa.    Forum    Ro- 

monfl!'  

Cicero    i,  Fr-m    liERNoULLi,    h'Omisrh,-   lkono(}ra phlc) 

Julius  Caesar 

A   Roman   Calley    (From    Herschee.   Fronlinus) 

Peristyle  of  a  Pomfeian   Villa 

Augustus ^^^'"9 

The  Claudian  Aqueduct 


Nero. 


18 
19 
27 

31 
33 
38 
46 

02 

78 

81 

97 

127 

128 

129 

129 

Fil 

ir2 

15S 
KJl 
171 
175 
176 
185 
191 
192 


The    Seven-hranched    Candlestick    from    the    Auch 

OF     1  ITUS ^^^ 

The  Colosseum   or   Flavian   Amphitheatre 200 

Panorama  in'   I*omfeii Funng  201 

A  Mosaic,  Showinc    Parrots 202 

Trajax   (From   1U:rnoulli.   h'dnnsrhr  Ikonogrnpluf) 206 


PAGE 

Hadrian   (From  Bernoulli,  Rdmisrhc  Ikonogntphic) 21 1 

The  Paxtheon 21  "^ 

The    Mausoleum  of    Hadrian 2F1 

Marcus  Aurelius  in  his  Triumphal  (Chariot 210 

The  Arch  of  Seftimius  SEvrERUS 224 

Julia   Domxa   (From    Berxoulei,   Rdmii^rhc    Ikonogrnphic) .  .  .  .  227 

The  Triumphal  Arch  ..e  Ci.nstaxtine 233 

The  Moxas iery  of  Moxte  Cassixo Facing  251 

From  a   M  \nuscript  of  Vergil 251 

Sr    SopHi  \   AT  Constantinople 261 

,wvv  271 


CHARLE^^v(;xE 

St.   Peter's  at  Rome. 


275 


(II AFTER  I 

INTUODl  (   roHV    SURVEY 

How    Korne  dt'veloped  out   of   u  city-state  into  an  empire,  aiul  how  her 
history  ruiuvrns  us. 


1.  The  Conquests  of  Rome.  The  history  of  Rome  is  the 
storv  of  the  (level()j)inent  of  a  city-state  into  an  empire  of  world- 
wide extent,  which  finally  of  its  own  weight  broke  into  pieces. 
In  the  first  stage  of  her  t^^rowth  this  single  city  on  the  Tiber 
makes  herself  a  leader  among  the  neighboring  towns  which  lie  in 
tile  low  country  known  as  Latium,  to  the  south  of  the  river. 
Tsing  tliese  towns  as  her  allies  and  de|)endents,  she  conquers 
the  Etruscans  to  the  north,  and  the  Samnites  in  the  hills  to  the 
east.  In  this  wav  she  lias  scarcely  become  mistress  of  central 
Italy  when  the  fortunes  of  war  bring  her  into  conflict  with  the 
peo})les  of  Magna  Griecia,  as  southern  Italy  was  called,  and 
their  champion  IVrrhus.     The  conquest  of  southern  Italy  follows. 

Rome  now  controls  the  wliole  peninsula  and  is  a  world-power. 
Her  outlook  is  towards  the  West  and  the  trend  of  events  plunges 
her  into  a  struggle  with  Carthage,  the  other  great  power  of  the 
West.  She  cruslies  Carthage  and  strips  from  her  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, and  Spain.  Then  she  turns  for  the  first  time  toward  the 
East  and  forces  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Asia  Minor  to  yield  to 
her.  Her  great  leader,  Julius  (^aesar,  conquers  central  Europe 
and  begins  the  subjugation  of  Britain.  In  this  way  the  limits  of 
her  empire  are  steadily  pushed  forward  until  throughout  the 
civilized  world,  from  the  Atlantic  on  the  west  to  the  Euphrates  on 
the  east,  from  the  Sahara  on  the  south  to  the  Rhine  and  the 
Damibe  on  the  north,  the  authority  of  Rome  is  recognized,  the 
Latin  language  is  spoken,  and  Roman  institutions  are  firmly 
established. 

13 


14 


ROM  AX    HISTORY 


iXTRODirTORV    SURVEY 


15 


2.  Rome  a  City-state.     For  this  vast  area  the  seat  of  gov- 
ernment was  located  at  Rome.      There  the  consuls  and  emper- 
ors  fixed  their  official  residences;  there   tlic  senate   met,  and 
thence  officials  were  sent  out  to  govern  the   provinces.      But 
Rome  was  not  simply  a  capital,  like  Washington  or  London. 
It  was  more  than  that.      A  citizen  of  the  United  States  or  a 
British  subject  living  in    any  small   town  whatsoever  has   the 
same  political  powers   and  privileges    as    one  who  resides  in 
the  capital  city,  because  he  can  cast  his  vote  in  his  native  town 
and    have    tlie    representatives   thus    chosen     pass    the    laws 
which    he  wislies.      Not  only  was  the  city  on  the  Tiber  the 
seat  of    legislative  and    administrative   activity,    but  meetings 
of  the  popular  assemblies  to  choose  magistrates  and  enact  laws 
could  be  held  iiowliere  else.     This  k^ft   the  power  of  electing 
magistrates  and  making  laws  to  those  who  lived  in  Rome  or  near 
enough  to  the  city  to  go  there  to  deposit  their  votes.     In  other 
words  the  government  of  tlie  world,  even  after  tlic  franchise  had 
been  granted  to  towns  throughout  Italy,  was  left  to  the  city  of 
Rome^     When  the  city-state  became  an  empire  and  the  right  of 
electing  magistrates  antl  of  voting  on  laws  i)assed  out  of  the 
hands  of  tlie  [)eo[)le,  as  it  at  last  did,  the  city  was  reduced  to  the 
position  of  a  modern  capital,  and  finally  lost  even  this  distinction, 
when  the  empire  which  had  brought  the  different  sections  of  the 
world  witliin  its  limits  began  to  fall  to  pieces. 

3.  Internal  Struggles.  For  several  centuries  the  govern- 
ment rested  in  the  hands  of  the  few,  while  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  were  excluded  from  the  offices,  and  gained  the  right 
to  hold  them  only  as  the  result  of  a  long  and  painful  struggle. 
With  this  great  contest  for  equality  between  those  who  enjoyed 
political  privileges  and  those  who  were  deprived  of  them,  there 
was  interwoven  the  struggle  between  the  rich  and  the  ]ioor;  a 
struggle  which  was  intensified  when  the  great  mass  of  the 
people — the  plebeians  as  they  were  called — had  secured  political 

equality. 

4.  Changes  in  the  Form  of  Government.     Meantime  the 
growth  of  the  empire  had  an  influence  upon  the  political  and 


social  development  of  the  city.      The  great  armies  which  were 
needed   in   acquiring  new  territory,  and  in  -— '"?  °f  ^ 
throughout   the  territory  already  acqmred,  secured  a  control- 
ling influence  in  domestic  affairs,  for  the  consuls  and  the  sen- 
ate could  not  enforce   their   authority   successfu  ly   agamst  a 
Marius.  a  Sulla,  a  Pompey,  or  a  Caesar,     bo  m  Inne  the   e  ns 
of  government  passed  from  the  annually  elected  consul  and  the 
senate,  both  of  whom  reflected  the  w^ies  of  the  Peop^ ^VJ'^"-' 
to  the  emperor,  who  represented  better  the  mterests  of  the  em- 
pire; and  the  government  of  the  world  for  the  benefit  of  a  .mgle 
city  gradually  gave  way  to  a  policy  which  was  better  adapted 
to  the  interests    of    the  whole   Roman  world       The    orm  of 
government  ha^  passed  through  a  complete  cycle  in  its  develop- 
ment.   The  monarchy  gives  way  to  a  repubhc;  the  repubhc  is 
transformed  into  a  democratic  empire    and  out  oi  f^  }^''e^ 
develops  an  autocracy,  or  state  in  which  one  man  holds  the  su- 

^T'soclal  Changes.    The  social  changes  which  Rome  and 
Italy  underwent  were  as  marked  as  the  political.    At  the  be- 
ginning the  people  were  tillers  of   the   soil,  of  simple  tastes, 
possessed  of  the  bare  necessities  of  Ufe,  and  inured  to  warfare. 
L  trade  developed,  and  tribute  came  to  them  from  the  prov- 
inces, their  wealth  increased,  and  with  wealth  came  a  taste  for 
luxury,  and  a  loss  of  the  physical  and  moral  strength  which  had 
brought  them  their  earlier  successes.     They  enro  led  barbarians 
in  the  army  to  fight  for  them,  and  imported  hordes  ot  slaves  to 
till  their  fields.     In  their  weak  and  helpless  state  they  were  no 
longer  able  to  hold  back  the  Germanic  peoples  of  northern  Eu- 
rope who  steadily  pushed  on  to  the  south  and  finalb;  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  western  part  of  the  empire.   1  hen  the  proc- 
ess of  conquest  and  unification  begins  again   this  time  under 
the  Franks!  and  is  carried  to  completion  by  their  great   leader 

Charlemagne.  ,  .  i    „^ 

6.  The  Task  of  the  Historian.  It  is  our  object  to  see  how 
this  great  territory  was  acquired  and  governed,  how  the  city- 
state  developed  into  an  empire,  how  the  great  mass  of  the  Ro- 


16 


ROMAX    HISTORY 


mans  gained  their  political  rights,  how  the  character  and  mode 
of  living  of  the  people  gradually  changed,  and  finally  to  ask  our- 
selves how  and  why  the  vast  structure  disintegrated  and  society 
reformed  itself  into  the  states  of  Medieval  Europe. 

7.  Significance  of  Roman  History.  Our  inheritance  from 
Rome  has  been  so  large,  and  lier  law,  her  institutions,  and  the 
Latin  language,  are  so  interwoven  in  the  fabric  of  our  own  public 
and  private  life  that  wc  cannot  understand  modern  civilization 
without  a  knowledge  of  Roman  history.  But  to  us  Anglo-Saxons 
the  story  of  Rome  will  always  appeal  with  peculiar  force  because 
it  is  the  history  of  a  peo{)le  who  sliowcd,  as  we  liave  shown,  a 
steadfastness  of  purpose,  a  knowledge  of  i>ractical  affairs,  a 
skill  in  adapting  means  to  an  end,  and  a  regard  for  tradition. 
It  is  the  history  of  a  people  whose  success  in  colonizing  other 
lands  and  in  moulding  other  civilizations  into  a  likeness  to  their 
own,  finds  perhaps  no  other  parallel  than  tliat  which  the  history 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  peof>le  otters. 


(1IAPTEU  11 


Tin:    LAM)    AND    THE    PEOPLE 
HOW  the  .eo^aphy  of  Italy  t.nd.l  ^o^^^:^^^^^^ 

IrJ^r^r^C^wr^o:;;^^^^      t.e  natural  capital -HOW  the 
Italians  lived.  ^ 

8  The  Peoples  of  Italy.  Wc  have  just  token  a  bird  s-eye 
view  of  the  stcry  of  Rome,  an.l  huve  notieed  some  of  the  ques- 
tions wliich  tlic  student  of  Roman  history  asks  himself  lo 
..nswor  th.se  ,,uestions  wc  must  first  know  somellung  of  the 
antecclcnts  and  character  of  the  Roman  ,.<.„plc  somethmg  of 
their  country  and  of  the  peoples  about  them.  AMu-n  our  m- 
terest  in  Italy  1«-Rins  there  were  three  races  reprcsen  c.l  w  h  „ 
its  limits  with  whom  we  are  especially  concernc.l:  the  btrus- 
cans,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Italians. 

9.  The  Etruscans.  Whcic-  the  Etruseans  came,  how  they 
entered  Italy,  or  with  what  people  they  were  related,  .s  st. 
a  mysterv,  but  in  early  tinu.,  at  .he  height  of  thcnr  PO-'er,  the,r 
territorv'tn  the.  north  included  the  valley  oi  the  Po,  and  to  the 
south  extended  into  Campania,  possibly  inelud.ng  Latmm 
The  southern  eountries,  however,  thn.v  o«  thetr  yoke  m  the 
fifth  centurv  ».  c  and  the  pressure  of  the  Gauls  robbed  them 
of  their  nonhern  possessions,  so  that  in  tinie  Etruria  proper  ex- 
tended only  from  the  Arnus  to  the  Tiber.  .       ,        , 

10.  Their  Influence  on  the  Italians.  Etruna  played  an 
importont  part  in  the  development  of  I'^^"';"/'^';;^-^'";"  ^^  "■ 
troducing  a  knowledge  of  Greek  art  and  Greek  -  '~. 
Her  merchants  visited  the  eities  of  Greeec;  she  had  a  neh 
firmly  established  nobility,  which  fostered  the  arts,  and jhe 
Etruscans  lived  in  eities  and  were  not  simple  herdsmen  or  farm- 
ers, like  the  Itolians.     All  these  circumstances  led  them  to  ac- 

17 


18 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


eept  eagerly  and  to  dcvcloi)  ilic  material  side,  at  least,  of  Greek 
civilization,  and  tlirougli  the  Etruscans  Greek  culture  made 
itself  felt  in  some  measure  in  Italy  long  before  the  Italians  were 
brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  Greeks.  From  them  the 
Romans  learned,  for  instanif,  the  construction  of  the  arch 
which  they  used  so  etiectivcly  later  in  their  public  buildings  and 


AN  r;i  Ki  -.<  AN 


\U(  Ol'UAQUS 


aqueducts.  From  tlicin  they  accpiired  some  skill  and  taste  in 
the  manufacture,  from  clay  and  metal,  of  artic^les  of  use  and 
ornament.  Dancers  and  j)ipe  players  found  their  way  from 
l^truria  to  Rome,  and  from  the  Etruscans  the  Romans  bor- 
rowed the  practice  of  celebrating  festivals  with  gladiatorial 
combats. 

11.  The  Greeks.  The  most  important  Greek  settlements 
in  Italy  were  Cumje,  Tosidonia  or  l^estum,  Thurii,  Rhegium, 
Croton,  Metapontum,  and  Tarentum.  M  we  look  at  the  loca- 
tion of  these  towns  on  the  map,  we  see  that  the  main  Greek 
colonies  are  all  on  or  near  tlic  seaboard,  and  run  from  Campania, 
southward  along  the  western  coast  and  northward  to  the  head 


TiiE    LAND  AND    THE   PEOPLE 


19 


of  the-Gulf  of  Tarentum  along  the  east  side  of  the  great  prom- 
ot.tne  oui  earhest  of  these 

onlory  which  runs  d(A\n  toward  r^icuy.      x 
,ouioi>  ^  Rome  Itself,      bitu- 

settlements,  Cmnie,  was  a.  o.d  a.  tlic  city  oi  •    ^^_ 

ated  on  the  Cay  of  Niiples,  with  the  nch  plains  ot  Campania  be 
h"i  it,  its  growth  was  rapid,  and  it  became  a  JVJos,^^^ 
town.  It  was  the  nearest  to  Rome  of  any  of  he  ^'^^^^\^.f  ^^^^^j 
and  maintained  friendly  relations  with  that  city,  so  that  it  is  not 
urpris^r^^  from  an  early  period  it  should  have  exerted  a 
ru  influence  or»  the  Latins.  Frequent  references  to  the  Cu- 
Sil  on^le    in  early  Roman  tradition,  and  the  introduction 


A   GKEKK  TEMPLE  AT   PJESTUM 

into  Latium  of  the  Cunuvan  alphabet,  testify  to  tWs  facj^   Rhe- 

,,u.  ced  it3  hnponanee  •;  j|  ^^  ^    ,     ^1^1^ 
city  Messana,  on  the  c^oast  of  ^i"  T  <'PP°^'t^*°    '         ^       . 
the  Strait  of  Messina.     But  of  all  the  cities  in  Magna  GnBcm 
o     southern  Italy,  Tarentum  .as   the  "-^  A-^^;-^^^  ^^^ 
fine  harbor  made  it  the  natural  port  of  entry  from  Greec^  and 
the  Orient    and  the  most  important  commere.al  and  manu 
L?;;    point  in  southeastern  I-^V  and  when  in  *e^^^^^^^^ 
n„e,  the  inevitable  eonflict  between  the  <-f  ^  that  Tarlmn 
the  Italians  to  the  north  came,  it  was  natural  t'-*  Ta-'J"^^; 
should    become  the   centre    of  resistance  against   the  Italian 

invaders. 


18 


IvoMW     IllsroHV 


TllK    LAND    AM)    TUK    I'KOl'LE 


19 


cepl  eajrcHy  ami  to  <lcvrl..]>  llic  inalcrial  side,  at  least,  ol"  (ireek 
rivilization,  and  llir(m<([i  the  Kfniscans  (ireek  eulture  miidv 
itself  felt  ill  some  measure  in  Italy  long  before  the  Italians  were 
hroui^-lit  into  direct  euiilaet  with  the  (Jreeks.  From  them  the 
Romans  learned,  for  instance,  tlic  con>trnction  of  the  arch 
which  thev  uscl  :m>  ctl"ecli\ely  later  in  their  public  buildings  and 


A  \    111;  I  -(    \ 


I  'i'ii.\<;  1  s 


aciueducls.  From  them  they  ac(|uirc(l  >ome  skill  and  taste  in 
the  mamifacture,  from  clay  and  metal,  of  articles  of  use  and 
ornament.  Dancers  and  pipe  players  found  their  way  from 
Ktruria  to  lUniiv,  and  froui  the  I'iruseans  the  Ronums  bor- 
rowed the  practice  of  cclcl)ratin<r  festivals  with  <^dadialorial 
combats. 

11.  The  Greeks.  I'he  most  iinf>ortant  Greek  settlements 
in  Italy  w.-re  (\una',  Posidunia  (.r  rastum,  llnirh,  Rhegium, 
Troton,  Metapontum,  and  Tarentum.  If  we  look  at  the  loca- 
tion of  these  towns  on  the  map,  we  see  that  the  main  Greek 
colonies  are  all  on  or  near  the  Maboard,  and  run  from  Campania, 
southward  alon^r  du.  western  coast  and  northward  to  the  head 


A   r.KKi   K    ll.Ml'Ll.   AT    r-T-^1  ^  -^I 

i.Uo  Luliun,  of  .lu.  (•»......,.  Mphal. ...  U-.tily  ...  this  fact      Rhe- 

,iu,n  owed  its  i.nporta.uv  l:u-,,.!y  to  „.  1-at.on       N    '-     ^  " 
eUy  Messana,  on  the  .-..as.  of  Su-ily  oi-posUc  to  ,.  U  cout  o  lul 
he  Strait  of  Messina.     15ut  ot  all  the  ...ks  n.  Ma^na  Or.e 

.tuthenn   Italy,  Ta.en,.nn   was    the  "^"^^  ^"^"^"^  ^ 
«„e  harbor  n.ulc  it  the  natural  port  oi  entry  Iron.  W  c   .nd 
,hc  Orient,   and   the   uk.sI   i,n,.orlanl   eonuner,-  al   and  manu 
inc  v^riLMi.  ,„.„  l|.,lv  and  when,   n  the  course  of 

fietnrin<' lionil  ni  sonllua-lein  11.11%,  auu  ,  .,         . 

•:;:;;:  ilevilahle  ......het  ..etween  the  <  ^^^^^ ;';;;; ^:;l 

the  Italians  to  the  north  came,  it  was  -^--'.  ""\  J^^^^;;; 
should    become   the   centre    of   resistance  aganist    the   Italian 

invaders. 


20 


i;t».\i\\  Hisioia 


12.  Their  Character.     Al!  ol  tin m- nnt.^  enjoyed  a  flourish- 
ing trade,  and  becauie  |jro.s{Mr(>iLs  and  influential.    *  Tliey  fostered 
the  arts,  and  Un>k  a  deejj  intere^t  in  piiilosoplij  and  literature, 
and  the  real  bepniiing.s  of  literature  and  art  in  Rome  date  from 
the  campaii^'iLs  wiiicii  tlic  Hon>-n,.  carried  on  in  Magna  Griecia 
in  the  third  century  behn.  uui  era.     But  it  was  well  for  the 
Roman  people  that  they  wviv  not  brouglit  into  contact  with  the 
Greek  cities  of  the  S.muIi  at  an  earlier  date,  l)efore  Roman  po- 
litical ideals  had  l)econie  fixed  and  before  Roman  jmblic  and 
private  character  had  liad  an  opportunity  to  dexelop  along  their 
own  characteristic  lines,   for   the    (ireek  colonies  in  southern 
Italy  showed  all  the  i)olitica!  \\eakne>se.s  of  the  mother  country. 
They  not  only  lacked  cohesion  among  themselves,  but  the  several 
towns  were  ccmstantly  rent  l>y  Internal  dissen-.-.,  and  partisan 
fcelmg  ran  so  high  in  tin-  struggles  between  tiu  aristocratic  and 
^U'UUKTixiw  tactions,   that  a   party  cften  {^referred  to  call  in  a 
foreigner  and  submit  to  him  raiher  tlian  to  vield  to  its  political 
opi)onents.     This  inability  to  act  in  harmony  which  the  (ireek 
colonies  showed    of   ctnirse  made  their   ultimate  concpicst    by 
Rome  a  comi>arativeIy  easv  n»-itter. 

T  ]^'  ^f  ^*^^^^°s.      The   Italians   proi>er  occui)ied    central 
Italy,      rhey  were  divided  into  tu„  l,ranches.     One  was  made 
ui)  olthe  Unibrians  and  the  ()sean-si)eaking  peoi)les;  the  other 
was  Latm      The  Umbrians  dwelt  in  the  territory  between  the 
Tiber  and  the  Apennines.     The  met  i>owerful  of  the  Oscan- 
speakmg  peoples  were  the  Samnites,  some  of  whom  dwelt  in 
httle  VI  lages  in  the  mountains  of  central  Italv,  and  lived  the 
sunple  hfe  of  their  fathers,   while  others  had  descended  into 
tne  j)Iains  of  Campania.  I.ucania,  and  southern  Italy  and  had 
adopted  the  mode  of  living  of  the  Greek  coast  towns.'   Akin  to 
the  Sammtes  were  certain  tril>es  in  central  Italy  like  the  Volscians, 
Aequians,  and  Herniei,  the  three  ,XH,i)les  who  shut  in  Latium 
the  country  o^  the  Latins,  to  the  east  an<I  s<nith.     Latium,  o; 
Hie  land  of  the  plain,"  was  bounded  on  tl,e  r.orth  })y  the  Tiber 
and  on  the  east  and   south   bv  a  line  draun  just  l,evond  thj 
towns  of  Pra.,estc,  Velitne.  (  ora.  and  Setia;  it  stretched  along 


Tin-:    LAM)    AM)    THE     PEOPLE 


21 


i 


the  coast  for  sixty  or  seventy  miles,  and  came  at  an  early  period 
to  include  within  its  limits  a  large  part  of  the  country  of  the 
Aecjuians,  the  Herniei,  and  Volscians,  and  extended  along  the 
coast  to  Sinuessa. 

14.  Diversity  of  Race  and  of  Occupation.  The  presence 
in  Italv  of  these  diiferent  races  with   their  diverse  tastes,  re- 

a.  / 

ligions,  and  modes  of  living  made  against  the  development  of 
a  common  national  life.  Leaving  out  of  account  differences  in 
language,  which  create  a  deep  [)rcjutlicc,  and  constitute  an  al- 
most insurmountable  barrier  between  peoples,  the  Greeks  in  the 
south,  living  in  v.ell-built  cities  on  the  coast,  with  their  highly 
developed  civilization  and  tlieir  commercial  instincts,  were  alien, 
like  the  Etruscans  in  the  north,  to  the  Italians  in  central  Italy, 
who  cultivated  their  fields  in  the  lowlands,  or  alternated  in  the 
hill-country  between  tending  their  Hocks  and  raiding  their  neigh- 
bors. One  might  have  })r()|)hesi(Ml  with  some  confidence  that 
this  racijd  diversity  would  give  rise  to  tlie  development  of  half 
a  dozen  intlependent  states  in  Italy. 

16.  The  Peninsula  and  its  Products.  This  would  have 
seemed  all  the  more  likely  in  view  of  the  configuration  of  the 
country  and  the  diversity  of  tlie  climate.  The  fertile  plains 
along  the  west  coast  invite  to  agriculture;  the  hills  furnish  excel- 
lent pasturage  for  flocks  and  herds,  while  the  fastnesses  of  the 
Apennines,  which  run  from  one  end  of  Italy  to  the  other,  and 
send  out  spurs  to  the  east  and  west,  offer  secure  retreats  to  bands 
of  brigands  and  freebooters.  Then  too,  Italy  is  six  hundred 
miles  or  more  long  from  north  to  south,  and,  therefore,  offers 
a  great  varii^ty  in  climate.  The  soil  in  the  highlands  differs 
radically  from  that  in  the  lowlands,  and  this  great  variety  of 
soil  and  climate  gives  rise  to  a  correspondingly  large  diversity 
of  products.  The  cultivation  of  the  olive  and  the  vine,  the 
raising  of  grain  and  fruits  of  almost  every  sort,  and  the  rearing 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  could  all  be  carried  on  profitably 
within  the  borders  of  the  country,  and  could  not  fail  to  empha- 
size the  diversity  which  racial  difl'erences  produced. 

16.  The  Geography  of  Italy.     But    these  influences  were 


TFIi:   LAM)  AM)  THE  PEOPLE 


23 


22 


ROMAN    UISTOHV 


more  than  offset  hy  the  fact  that  Italy  is  a  natural  creographical 
unit.     On  the  only  side  w  here  it  touches  another  land  the  Alps 
form  a  natural  frontier,  and  yet,  although  the  Alps  help  to  give 
Italy  unity,  tli«y  do  not  form  an  ini[)assable  boundary  to  isolate 
it  from  the  rest  of  tlie  world,  as  Spain  is  eut  off  by  the  Pyrenees. 
The  sea  between  Calabria  and  Epirns  was  not  broad  enough  to 
frighten  ev<'ii  the  timid  navigators  of  ancient  times,  the  islands 
of  Sicily  an<l  Sardinia  l>ridge(l  over  the  long  stretch  to  Africa, 
and   still  Italy  was  not  (•l..^<'   enough   to  either  region  to  lose 
her  own   individuality.      It   had   been   otherwise   with   Greece. 
The  islands  scattered  at  convenient  intervals  through  the  .Egean 
Sea,  brought  her  into  too  close  relations  with  the  Orient  to'allow 
her  to  develo|)  a  unified  national  life,     (urece  faced  the  Orient 
too,  while  the  harbors  of  Italy  are  to  th(>  west-— away  from  the 
centres  of  the  older  civilizations.     The  development  of  a  country 
is  determined  in  large  measure  by  its  rivers  and  by  the  trend  of 
its  mountains.     Kiver  valleys  an-  apt  to  be  fertile  and  they,  there- 
fore, tempt  the  settler,  and  as  trade  grows  up.  the  rivers  them- 
selv(\s  afford  a  convenient   means  of  communication.     Moun- 
tain chains  furnish  a  natural  defense,  and  a  boundary  beyond 
which  a  people,  in  its  early  history,  at  h>ast,  is  not  likely  to  ex- 
tend its  settlem<iits  or  its  eorKiuests.     If,  having  these  facts  in 
mind,  we  glance  at  tlie  map  of  Italy,  we  shall  see  that  the  penin- 
sula is  divided  into  three  great  sections,  the  valley  of  the  Po,  the 
territory  to  th--  .•  .>t,  and  that  to  the  west  of  the  Apennines.     Each 
of  these  distm  i.  is  marke.l  oil'  from  the  other  and  capable  of 
independent  development. 

17.  The  Valley  of  the  Po.  The  valley  of  the  Po  is  shut  in 
on  the  north  by  the  Alps  and  on  the  south  by  the  main  chain 
of  the  Apennines,  which  runs  from  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  in  a 
somewliat  southeasterly  direciitM.  to  the  Adriatic.  The  Po  is  a 
broad,  sluggish  stream,  so  that  it  is  navigable  and  yet  at  the 
same  time  it  can  hv  easily  forded.  The  Ai>ennines  separate 
this  vail,  y  >o  markedly  from  the  rest  of  the  penin.sula  that  its 
earlv  historv  was  quite  distinct  from  that  of  Italy  proper.  In 
fact  it  is  commonly  known  i*.  the  Romans  as  Cisalpine  Gaul. 


18.  The  Adriatic  Coast.  Italy  itself  is  divided  into  two 
strips  by  the  mountain  chain  which  runs  through  the  central 
part  parallel  to  the  coast  line.  The  eastern  section  is  turned 
toward  the  cold  winds  of  the  North  and  East;  its  lowlands  are 
narrow,  and  its  soil  comparatively  sterile;  it  is  nearly  cut  off  from 
communication  with  the  rest  of  the  world,  because  it  is  easily  ap- 
proached by  land  only  from  the  North,  it  has  few  rivers  and 
harbors,  and  in  ancient  times  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  Adriatic 
were  inhabited  by  uncivilized  peoples. 

19.  The  West  Coast.  The  plains  on  the  w^est  coast  are 
broader  and  more  fertile;  they  are  protected  by  the  mountains 
from  the  cold  north  winds;  the  rivers  are  dee|)er  and  the  bays  and 
harbors  more  numerous.  All  of  these  facts  gave  the  Mediter- 
ranean side  of  the  j)eninsula  a  great  advantage  over  the  Adriatic 
coast,  and  go  far  toward  explaining  the  earlier  development 
and  the  greater  importance  of  that  part  of  Italy.  We  should 
remember  also  that  the  Greeks  made  no  settlements  on  the 
Adriatic  side,  but  did  colonize  the  western  coast.  This  fact  was 
of  great  moment,  because  the  civilizing  influence  which  they 
exerted  and  the  spirit  of  imitation  or  of  resistance  which  they 
aroused  in  the  Italians  west  of  the  Apennines,  tended  strongly  to 
further  the  develo[)ment  of  that  portion  of  the  peninsula. 

20.  Location  of  Rome.  At  the  centre  of  this  favored  coast, 
and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  Rome  was  situated.  One 
needs  only  to  recall  the  Nile,  the  Tigris  and  Eui)hrates,  the  Indus 
and  Ganges,  to  appreciate  how  great  a  part  rivers  played  in  an- 
cient times  in  making  communities  ])olitical  and  commercial 
centres.     The  Romans  of  the  later  period  understood  how  much 

*  the  city  owed  to  its  fortunate  location.  The  historian,  Livy,  w^ell 
sums  up  these  advantages  when  he  writes:  "With  great  wisdom 
have  gods  and  men  selected  this  site  for  the  city — a  spot  where 
there  are  health-giving  hills,  on  the  banks  of  a  river,  on  which  the 
fruits  of  the  earth  from  the  lands  behind  us  may  be  brought  hith- 
er, on  which  produce  from  abroad  may  come,  w^ith  the  sea  close 
enough  to  l)e  of  service — a  place  not  so  near  the  coast  as  to  be 
exposed  to  danger  from  hostile  fleets,  in  the  centre  of  Italy, 


24 


1;mMa\  llisToliY 


TlIK  LAN  I)    AN  I'    1  iH'    '  • 


25 


and  peculiaHv  ailaptt'»l  U*  iii.sun-  the  }.'io\\th  ol  a  ^"ity-"  In 
brief,  it  may  Ik-  said  tliat  tho  jjartitioii  nf  Italy  among  several 
independent  states  to  which  tlie  diversity  of  her  races,  soil,  and 
climate  seemed  to  |)oint,  w  i-  nuidi'  impossible  by  the  fact  that 
her  natural  boundaries  ^':a\.  mi  unity,  tliat  the  conformation  of 
the  countrv  led  to  the  dcvcl(.j)incnt  of  the  west  coast  first,  and 
that  the  location  of  Uoinc  on  a  navii.(ablc  river  at  the  middle 
point  of  this  c(»ast  niadf  licr  the  inevitable  j»olitical  and  commer- 
cial capital  of  tlie  wh«)le  country. 

21.  The  Italians  an  Agricultural  People.  The  Liitins,  as 
well  as  the  other  Italians,  })rol)ably  entered  Italy  from  the  North. 
They  were  [)rimarily  an  a<rricnltnral  people,  engaged  mainly  in 
growing  grain.  Tlie  vine  and  the  (ig  were,  however,  known  to 
them  from  the  earliest  times.  The  reariTe^  f-f  (attic  too,  must 
have  been  an  im|)ortant  industry,  since  tin  vdiliest  Latin  v.ord 
for  wealth,  prciuiid,  coiiies  from  />rr//.v,  cattle,  and  oxen  and 
slieep  formed  the  (.Idest  me<lium  of  exchange.  Artisans  were 
almost  unknown.  Tlie  mi-nibcrs  of  each  liousehold  raised  their 
own  cattle  an<l  in'ain,  made  their  own  garments  from  flax  or 
w^ool,  and  fashioned  the  few  iirticles  of  wood  or  clay  needed  for 
tlieir  sim|>le  life.  ( )nly  with  the  development  of  urban  life  came 
tlie  growth  of  an  artisan  class.  What  we  know  of  the  primitive 
religion  of  the  Italian  an<l  the  Uoman  confirms  the  conclusions 
which  we  have  just  reached  in  regard  t<>  die  state  of  society 
in  the  early  i>eri(..l.  Tliey  thought  of  the  gtids  as  liei|)ing  or 
hindering  them  in  cultivating  the  fields,  in  rai.sing  cattle,  and  in 
waging  war,  and  to  these  functions  the  powers  of  most  of  their 
divinities  were  confined.  Sucli  a  «<>iiception  indicates  plainly 
enough  that  the  great  material  interests  of  the  people  did  not 
extend  beyond  these  three  occupations.  The  manual  arts  and 
commerce  were  still  undeveloj)ed,  as  we  see  from  the  fact  that 
the  divinities,  Minerva  and  Mercury,  who  in  the  later  period 
helped  and  guarded  the  artisan  and  the  merchant  respectively, 
were  unknown  in  the  early  Koman  religion,  and  that  Neptune 
had  not  yet  become  the  god  <»f  the  sea  and  of  seafaring  men. 

22.  Their  Character.      The  wliole  history  of  the  Italians 


1       f  cr.u^i]  sense  wit,  self-control, 
shows  that  Ihey  were  a  ,.c«,.k.  ot  8""^  ^  '    '        ,    ,,^  ;„  a.eir 

,    ,  •    ,»w.ri     Thev  were  industrious  anu  sinii 

and  detcrnunauon.    1  h  >     -  endurance,  a  great  respec 

tastes;  they  had  rejnarkabM^^^^^^^  ^^^^^^  ^,^^^  j„,,„,al 

for  authority,  and  a  vMllmgnLbs  lo 
interests  to  the  conunon  g""^'  j,^,  ..^ganizatlon 

23.  The  Family  and  the  Clan.     1  he   ^      •      -  ^,^^^ 

.       V,.i  nn\v  the  s  uves,  l)i.l  tuc  uimnti 
was  very  compact.     Not  on  y  ^^^  j^^,, 

children  owed  in>,.hc..  obedience  to  U  c  i ^-.  ^^.^^^ 

-^  '--'  "r  ''7  '"  ^t;lt  nTt  aiher  to  a  connnon 

ancestor.     Jl     «-.'>' ^  .^^  „,,,  „.^„,     p,,  .nutual  ,^0- 

,nenO,ers  o!    h.      .  n  ^^,^^,^,,j  ,,^.^,,  „„,  ,„„iUer 

„,,„„„  ,,v.ral  ol    U  -  '  •■  '-  ;     ,^,  ,^,k,  ,,fu.e  in  l.n.e 

aUout  SOUK-  forUiH-,1  l.oint    «  c  .    U.  ^  „,  i„.livi,h.als  l.ut 

.   ■  Ti,..  1  ,iid  or  "  na  V  lu'longeil  not  to  i""" 

of  danger.      1  lu     -ul  '    •^■.  ■  .,,^^j  „„,„„.  Ute  several 

to  the  clan,  at.d  the  cio,,.  I  on,  .1  N  c  .,,iioned  to  in- 

1    1  1        i.\..n   liter  the  arable  laaci  was  app^^ 
households.     Kn   n  a U       U.  ,,,„a.land  was  held  as  the 

dividual  owners,  the  lut-Uni-UnQ  an  a 

c-onnnon  property  of  the  e.ttire  ">'"";"'2;.     o>at  the  state  of 

24.  Religion.     Wc  have  ;->''-     '^"^^  ^y  period  i.  re- 

society  and  the  character  oi  the  P-P'  J  f^ J        ide  of  their 

fleeted  in  their  relig.ons  ^y^^"^^'  J^^l^,  understand  later 

life  will  be  of  tnuch  f--";,';;;       ^  ^      ^.-oven  with  public 
history,  because  relju.n  ^u.  >  cl>  •      ^^^  ^^^  ^^^  ^^.^^^  ^^^ 

and  private  affairs,  that  >«^^'"  ^    •  '  ^^^^          i^  took  to- 

eharacter  of  their  J-^-^;  ^    ,  ,.ad  upon  the  life  and 

ward  them,  and  what  "  A"^'  ^        ;  ^.^-^^  ;„  Uiis  chapter 

development  of  the  people.           a   1  -  ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^ 

of  the  character  ='"'1/-''  :":"""'  '^^    ,,  ,,,,,1  confine  our 
Italians.     In  discussing  religious  "'■'*^;^;  ;  .^^^^^^..^  ;„ 

"Ib"  soured  rrour  Knowledge.     Fortunately  for  our  pur- 
25    Sources  ot  ,,„„,„,a,ive  in  all  matters,  were  pecu- 

pose  the  Romans,  vNho  wcr.  practices  sur- 

iarly  so  where  religion  was  concerned,  and  main  I 


ROMAN  HISTORV 


vived  in  later  years  whicli  carrv  ijs  back  almost  to  the  beginning 
of  things  Ronii;ii,  and  siiow  us  what  the  j^eople  thought  and  did 
in  early  days.     One  piece  of  vx'ulvncv  which  helps  us  is  furnished 
by  the  extant  calendars  of  religious  festivals  which  give  us  a 
list  of  the  gods  in  whose  hi)n,,r  i)ublic  celebrations  were  held. 
The  oldest  of  these  calendars  goes  back,  it  is  true,  to  a  date  only 
shortly  before  the  birth  <.}'  ('l,ris(,  but  it  contains  the  record  of 
eeremonies  wliich  liad  been  observed  year  after  year  for  centuries 
before  that  period.     From  writers  upon  antiquity,  like  Varro 
and  Aulus  Gellius,  from  inscriptions  iq.on  altars,  temi)les,  and 
tombstones,  and  from  tablets  engr;iv< d  for  priesthoods,  like  the 
tablets  of  tiie  ArN  a!  lirothcrs.  wlii<h  record  ceremonies  anil  prayers 
used  by  them  for  generations,  we   learn  much   about  the  way 
in  which  the  gods  ;\cre  worshi|)ped  in  the  earlv  period,  as  well 
as  about   the  gods  themselws.     Putting  all   this  nuiterial  to- 
gether W(>  have  a  fairly  clear  i.lea  of  tl,<.  pri.nitive  religious  svstem 
of  the  Romans. 

26    Foreign  Religions.     To  apprfciaU.  „ne  fun.lan.ental 
point  oi  diikToiuv  1„.|«,.,.„  il„.ir  altitude  in  religious  matters 
and  our  own,  we  must  l>.ar  the  la.l  in  mind  that  the  Romans  had 
many^gods,  and  tliat  a  p.opie  wi,i,l,  itself  believes  in  many  divine 
bemgs   reeeives    li,e   k,„|,    „f   „||„.,,   „„,i„„^   hospitably.     The 
people  of  Rome  lormed  u„  ex.epli,,,,  to  this  principle.     They 
took  the  pos.tmn  that  there  were  t;ods  unknown  to  them,  and  in 
early  day,,  at  h  a.i,  u  lun  a  new  connnunitv  was  incorporated  in 
the  state  or  transtVrrcd  to  Rome,  its  right  to  eurry  o.i  the  Worship 
of  its  old  divimtRs  was  fully  nrof-nized,  and  in  many  cases  the 
new  religion  was  offieially  a.lopte,!.     In  this  wav  the  number  of 
Roman  or  Latm  .hvinities  stea<lily  increased,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
say  in  all  cases  which  were  th,.  ,//  /„,/,,,„.,  ,„.  „rigi„„i      j,  ,,f 
the  Romans,  and  which  the  dr  .onn.uk.,  or  naturalized  deities 
Of  the  dinorcnsides,  the  majority  cam,,  from  the  other  Italians 
and  the  Greeks.     To  the  other  Italians  the  Romans  owed  the 
worship  of  Diana,  .Minerva,  Iler.,il,.s,  and  Venus.     Of  Greek 
ongin  was  the  worship  of  .\pollo,  .Mercury,  and  Neptune  as  a 
god  of  the  sea. 


THE  T.ASn  AXn  THF.  PEOPLE 


27 


„  .•       1  npities      Most  of  the  strictly  Roman 
27.  The  National  Deities.     Mo  ^^  ^j^^ 

deities,  the  di  »«''>'-'  r';;;;;",;!,    warrior.     Jupiter, 
gods  of  the  herdsman,  the  '-";"";  ^„„,v,i„e   to  nourish 

r  '-'  ''   '"'  '''r'i:irZ^    with  him,  e^erdsed 
the  crops.     Juno.   ^^'^^ '^        l^^^amiHMHIl 
similar     functions.       iellus 
and  Ceres  presided  over  the 
fields  where  the  seeds  were 
planted  and  over  the  grow- 
ing crops.   Saturnus  was  the 
god  of  tlic  sowing;  Silvanus 
and   Faunus   of  the   woods; 
Mars  was  the   god  of  war, 
but  was  thought  of  especuilly 
as  protecting  the  fields  and 
■    the  herds  from  the  incursions 
of  the  enemy.   To  Vesta  and 
the  Lares  and  Penates  was 
entrusted    the    care    of    the 
house    and    the    household. 
Their    altar  is    llie    hearth, 
the  central  point  in  the  house, 

.here  the  food  for  the  lum.ly    ^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

is   prepared,    and    l.etore    a  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^^^ 

„,eal  a  IHtle  wine  was  pour  out^^^^J.i,,  household.  Like 
food  offered  to  these  dcitu.  ^^V^^^  .^  ^  ,,  ,,Uere  a 

the  family  the  -^^^^^^^^nor  of  Vesta,  or  F..a 
fire  was  always  J^'^l'V ''""!"."  ,„,  „,  ^hg  ,vas  called,  by  six 
pMica  populi  «---/^';;;i^":;po;  Homan  deities  inter- 
Vestal  Virgins  chosen  ior  '^''^^'""^"^        ^hev  were  national 

ested  themselves   in  IJ--  ;;;="-  ^  J^^^,  ,,Ugion  was 

in  the  «trictestsense  of  I.  ^^^^  ^^  government. 

as  purely  a  national  "-^ »"'  "" '^  ^h^  number  of  deities 

28.  The  Less  ^-^^^"^^^^  the  gods  of  other 

~l:njr  ttbe  R^an  practice  of  thinking  of 


",fl 


20 


i;<»\i  \\  iiisr(.ii^ 


viu-d  in  later  years  wliieh  earrv  iis  hack  almost  to  the  l.e^rinning 
of  thinjjs  Koiiiaa,  and  sliiiw  us  w  hat  the  j)e()ple  tli{)u<,dit  and  did 
in  early  diys.  ( )ne  j.ieee  of  evidence  u  iiieh  helps  us  L  furnished 
by  the  extant  ealen.lars  of  reii^qous  festivals  which  .rive  us  a 
list  of  the  <.^ods  in  \v!i,,>r  houi.r  public  celebrations  were  held. 
The  oldest  of  the-..  <  alen<lars  <r<.es  back,  it  is  true,  to  a  date  only 
shortly  before  the  birth  of  ('i,ri>t.  but  it  e.,nlains  the  reeord  of 

eereinonies  which  had  b.'en  observed  year  after  year  for  eenturies 
before  that  periocL  From  writers  upon  antiquity,  like  Varro 
and  Auhi.  (Mlliu..,  from  inscriptions  upon  altars, "temples,  ami 
tombstone^  and  from  (ablets  en.n-rav..l  lor  i.riesthoods,  like  the 
tablets  of  the  Arval  lirothers,  which  record  ceremonies  and  prayers 
usedbydieui  h.r  -cneralion.s,  wc  learn  imich  about  the  way 
in  whieh  the  ^^(mI.  were  \\urshipp,«,|  iu  the  earlv  p.-riod,  as  well 
as  about  the  u-od.  ihcmM-lvcs.  |'„(tin<r  ,,ll  i|,is  ,uaterial  to- 
gether ^u■  have  a  fail  ly  .j.-ar  i.l.-a  nf  ih,-  prinntivc  religious  svstem 
ol  the  Romans. 

26    Foreign  Religions.      T„   .,,,.rc.,ia„.  one   fun.lan.ental 
point  ol  ,l,ll...v,M-,-  l„.|u,.,M   llM.ir  .•uiil,,,!.,.  in  religious  nuiUers 
ami  ourowu,  «,-  niiist  I.,,,,-  il„.  |,„  i  i„  mind  llu.t  the  Romans  had 
man\^f,'o,l.,  an,l  tl,;,l  a  |m.o|,|,.  xvl.i.l,  ilself  believes  in  many  divine 
beinfrs    iv.v,v.>    ll„.    j;,„|s    ,,r   olher    nalions   hospitably.     The 
peoj.le  ot  KoMie  loniicl  no  ,x,-,|,|i„,i  („  ,|,i,  pnneipJe      -pj^^^,^, 
took  the  position  thai  ll,,,,.  we,v  ^ods  nnknoun  to  them,  and  in 
early  day.,  al  ha.l,  ul„  „  a  new  .oinmnMilv  «as  incorporated  in 
the  stale  or  tran.l,.rr.d  In  Uon.e,  ils  righl  lo  earry  on  the  worship 
of  Its  old  divnnlies  ua.  tnlly  n-eofcnized,  and  in  n.anv  eases  the 
new  religion  was  oili.ially  adopted.     In  this  wav  the  number  of 
Koman  or  Latin  divinities  Meadily  ineieased,  and  il  is  dilfieult  to 
say  ,n  all  .aM-s  whieh  weiv  il,e  ,//  n./i;,,,,..  or  original  gods,  of 
he  Roman.,  and  whieh  il,e  ,//  „,„.,„./,/,.,  or  naturalized  <leities 

,,r/- r'"'t'  ""■  '""■'"'■'■'•   '"""■  '■'■"'"  ""^  "'h*^--  Italians 

and  the  Greeks.      lo  ,l,e  other  Italian,  ihe  Romans  owed  the 

worship  of  Diana,  Minerva,  Ilenule,,  and  Venus.  Of  Greek 
ongm  was  Ihe  worshi,,  of  .Vpollo,  .Meivnry,  and  .\e,„une  as  a 
god  ol  the  sea. 


Tin.   l.\NT'    \NO  THE  VKOl-I.K 


27 


,  ,.  •.•„.      Mosi  of  the  sirietlv  Roman 
27.  The  National  De.ties.    Mo^    >  ^^  •  .^^,j_  ^,^ 

deities,  the  ^li  ""'';/'"-\;'-;\,;;;;',    ,    ,.,  wari-ior.     Jupiter, 
gods  of  the  herdsman,  the  ';";;,   ^„„,,.„.,    ,.,   nourish 

similar      functions.        1  ''H"- 
and  (Vtcs  presi.led  over  the 
fields  where  the  -<•.  .Is  were 
planted  and  over   the  grow- 
ing crops.    Saturnus  was  the 
god  of  the  .sowing;  Silvanus 
,„ul   Faunus   of  ll>e    "'«"1'^' 
Mars   was  th<>    g"'l  "'   '''"■• 
but  was  thought  of -■sP'"'''":- 

as  proteeling   the   lu'hls  and 
the  herds  from  tlie  incursions 

of  the  enemy.  To  V,>ta  an-! 
the  Lares  and  IVnales  was 
entrusted  the  care  ol  the 
hoU.sc     mid     the     household. 

Their    altar  is    tl»-    '"■"">' 
the  central  point  in  the  house, 

^vhere  the  food  fo'"  H"'  '^'""'y     ■ ^  ^.,  „„,  ,,„„,. 

is   prepared,    and    l»to,v    a  ^^_^j  ^  ,i„,^. 

nu-al   a  l'''''''  -'"^^l'^ '"'":;;  ted  the  househol.l.     I-ik.' 

'''■'-'""•^••■'■^'-''''r^     V       .  u-th   in   a  temple  where  a 

^'-f='■''''^'''■"t■,:Tm       1     ■-    l"-orofVe.sta.    ..rr.^ 
fire    was   always    l^'-l"  ,'""."';.  ,,^  ,,,,  ,vas  calle.l,  by    si.x 

p„W,>a  M'""  «"""""/';;;', ,oc.     Uoman  deif.es  inter- 
Vestal  Virgins  chosen  loi  llu.  pu  1  ^^^^^.^^^^^, 

ested  themselves   in  ';•>•■--   ;':;.,  't  ulan's  religion  was 

in  the  strictest  -•>-;'.';;;;;.:  ,,s  his  form  of  government. 

as  purely  a  national  "-'"""";.  t^,,,  „„,„ber  of  deities 

28.  The  Less  ^-Pf  ^  ,^     ' "imiuing  the  gods  of  other 

was  made  v'-.v  Peat  n   to        ^^_^^^^^^  ^^^^.^^  ^^  ^^^  „, 
communities,  l)Ut  also  >>> 


i«0 


i!i>\i\\  irisTouv 


some  protccinfr  sriril  ns  |.,vsulinR  ..vcr  ,.l,nos,  ..v.rv  Inmmn 
action  an,i  naturd  ol.j...,.  ( ,„..  „{  ,|u.lr  .Mh,,uaiian.s  calcu- 
lates that  ,„   Ihc  la...,-    ,„.H,„|   ,|„.    ,{,„„„,,  ,,^„,   ,i^  „,,^^,^^__^, 

ailterent  smU.     TU,.  ,i,,ii ■  ,,.,1,.,.   .1,    .•        >         11 

Z'  iNi  >|,iia„  1.1   ualci,  the  lorcst.  and  the  vallcv 

each  had  ,l.s  own  guanlia,,  ,l,.,tv.  ( )x,„  w,.,-,.  ..rotecled  h'v 
one  supernatural  l.cin;,,  sh...,,  l,v  another.  A  special  god  took 
charge  of  one  in  going  „„,  „,■  ,   |,„„,,,    .,„,,   ^,^^^^,|_^,_.  ^,.^  ._^.^^ 

guarded  a   person  on  his  ,v,y  |„„ne.      We  .an  r,.a,lilv  s,-,-  (hat 
the  danger  of  ollen.ling  .unn-  .l.-ily,  m„,-..  they  w.-r,.  s.,  numerous 
was  an  ever  present  <,n...  and  n.a.l,-  >\u-  R.'nnan   u;-r  constant 
m  Ins  prayers  arul  sacrifices. 

29.  The  Ritual  Complex.  His  .lifM..nl,i.s  ...,,.  augmented 
by  the  fact  that  no  pul.lic  or  priva,,.  I,u.,„,.ss  of  anv  im|,ortance 
could  Ke  transact...!  wi.hon.  .livin,.  san.-lion,  an.l  thai  ,he  proper 
oksenan.v  of  v.-ry  .•o,npli,.a.,.,l  ...r.-monics  was  ,..ential  in 
wnnmg  ih,.  favor  of  a  fn..n,lly  go.|  or  in  app.-asini^  tlu-  wrath  of 
one  that  was  hostih..  This  s,.,,,-  of  ,hings,  how..v..r,  ha.i  its 
compen.sat.,ry  f..a.ur..s.  smhc  ,h,  ,v  w.Te  .leiti.-s  who  interested 
themsehcs  in  ....^v  a.-l  of  his  llf.,  ,,n,|  „  „„  ■       .    ' 

undertakmg   .he  lion.an    l...|i..v,..|  ,ha.  ,h..r,.  was  a    p^r.icul-.V 
god   who  ..,n,...rn,..l  hin,s,.|f  with   d,,,,   um.I.t,  ,|<ing.     Jh.  I„.ld 
therefor.,  that  .he  s.-rnpnlons  p..ri..rn,aM,.,.  of  ,h,.  ,,,,i,,i„„,  ,,^'^ 
prescnlx^d  for  the  purpos..  in   hand,  l.o„n.l  .1,..  go,l  ..oncrm.d 
to  favor  his  enterprise. 

30.  Religious  Ceremonies.  The  go.,d-will  of  ,1,,.  gods  was 
sought  by  off..r,ng  pray.-rs.  I.y  ho,,,i„,  ,,,,;,,,,  „„.,  ,f^,.  ;^^^ 
proce,s,s,ons  ,n  ,lu.,r  hon.,r,  an.l  I.y  n.aking  ..fferings.  I„  earl'; 
times  the  ...l.Trngs  whi.-h  ,h,.  stale  ma.l..,  like  ,h,,s..  of  ,1,.,^- 
drvuhud,  w..r..  ,h..  simple  frni.s  of  ,he  fi..|,l,  garlan.ls  an.l  .-ake" 
ar^dmrarc,  an  animal  was  sa,.nH.....|.     ( .ne  si.le  ,>f  ,1,    ; 

relations  w„h  .he  g...|s  ,he  lio„,a„s  .l,.,.!,,,,,,,  ,„  ,„  ,,„,,„ji'  ,  ' 
extent,  and  its  .hv.h.pmeni  -  .  I,-,,-,,.,  .■    ■      .■  ^"■"r<linary 

of  the  Roman  min.l.'     n  ,;,';:  i^/^'   ''''■"■''?' '™' 
i?         1.  .  larnui   (ould  not  expect  a  harvesf 

from  h,s  spring  sowing:  .h.-  s.a.c  ...ul.i  not  prosecute  a  wnr  ,„" 
«ssfully,  wi,   ou.  the  help  ..f  „„.  ,,,,,,     ,/,.,,  v,.rv    les    ..  1" 
thereh.r..,  ,.,  fin.,  o„,   h.,or..  un.lertaking  anv  entcrpis;  C     ,' 


rill-:  I  AM)  AM)  riiK  tkoimk 


21) 


tlie  will  of  tlic  ^^(xls  was,  ami  what  iiHiicalioiis  liny  would  <i;ivi' 
of  tlie  best  plan  to  adopt  in  onler  to  ensure  success.  Conse- 
quently a  most  elaborate  system  of  divination  from  watchino- 
the  flight  of  birds,  inspecting  tlie  entrails  of  animals,  and  inter- 
j)reting  all  sorts  of  natural  ])henomena,  was  developed — a  system 
adapted  to  all  the  needs  of  public  and  private  life. 

31.  The  Priests.  The  relations  between  gods  and  men 
were  direct,  that  is  to  say,  tlie  individual  could  make  his  prayers 
an.l  his  oiferings  directly  to  the  deity.  The  intervention  of  a 
priest  was  unnecessary.  (\>lleges  of  priests,  like  the  Augurs  or 
the  Salii  attached  to  the  worship  of  Mars,  were  either  the  serv- 
ants of  the  gods,  and  guarded  their  insignia  or  celebrated  their 
public  festivals,  or  they  were  tlie  representatives  of  the  wliole 
connnunity  in  il>  dealings  with  the  supernatural  powers.  Nei- 
ther was  religion  independent  of  the  state,  for  the  priest  was  sub- 
,,nl-iate  to  the  magistrate.  We  may  say  of  the  position  of  the 
priests  in  the  community,  that  the  great  number  of  the  gods  and 
the  complex  character  of  the  ritual  made  them  men  of  im- 
portance. They  (done  knew  the  necessary  formulas  and  cere- 
monies to  appease  the  gods,  and  yet  tlicy  never  formed  a  sei)arate 
caste,  as  was  freiiuently  the  case  in  the  Orient. 

32.  Influence  of  this  Religion.  Such  a  religion  and  such  a 
religious  organization  as  we  have  outlined  could  not  fail  to  exert 
a  great  infkuMice  u])on  the  intellectual  and  moral  life  of  the 
people.  The  gods  of  the  (Jreek  were  exalted  Human  beings,  en- 
dowed with  all  the  faculties  of  men  and  women,  but  they  were 
free  from  disease  and  pain  and  the  other  physical  imperfections 
and  limitations  from  which  mortals  suffer,  and  were  perfect  in 
form  and  beauty.  They  furnislied  the  iihilosopher,  the  poet, 
and  the  artist,  therefore,  ^^  ith  their  ideals  of  ])ower,  beauty,  and 
wisdom.  Poetry,  art,  and  |)hiloso])hy  among  the  Greeks  all 
sprang  from  religion.  The  colorless  conceptions  which  the 
Italians  had  of  their  gods,  lacking  the  elements  of  personality, 
furnished  no  such  inspiration  to  the  jioet.  Their  history,  carry- 
ing liim  no  farther  l)ack  toward  the  beginning  of  things  than  did 
the  founding  of  his  own  state,  f idled  to  stimulate  his  intercut 


30 


RDMAN    HISTORY 


in  the  liroadcr  (jucstioiis  of  man's  oritjin,  his  place  in  nature, 
and  the  nuaiiin^i^  of  liuniaii  life.  (  onsequently  his  thoughts  were 
directed  only  to  the  alVairs  of  everyday  life.  The  practical  bent 
of  his  mind,  wliich  of  course  determined  the  form  of  his  religion, 
was  in  turn  empliasized  hy  that  rcliijion  itself.  So  far  as  char- 
acter was  concrriicd,  his  o(k1s  \\(  tc  ><ar(*!y  \(^ted  with  moral 
qualities,  liis  relitooii  *lid  not  hold  up  exalted  ethical  standards, 
nor  did  it  aj>peal  to  spiritual  motives  of  a  hi<^h  order,  but  it  did 
enforce  the  observance  of  good  faith,  it  inculcated  a  spirit  of 
discipline,  a  high  regard  for  the  integrity  of  family  life  aiid  a  re- 
spect for  the  orderly  conduct  of  alfairs,  and  all  this  serxcd  to 
strengtlien  the  moral  fibre  of  the  people. 

33.  Summary  Description  of  Italy.  A  survey  of  Italy  in 
the  early  period  shows  us  that  the  important  peoi>les  were  the 
Etruscans,  the  (irecivs,  and  of  the  Italic  stock,  the  Latins,  and 
the  tribes  whicli  sj)ok<'  (  >scan.  Klruria  is  of  special  interest  to 
US  because  she  introduced  some  elements  of  (ireek  civilization 
among  the  I^atins.  Laler  tlie  Latins  were  greatly  influenced  by 
the  Greek  t(iwns  along  the  coast  of  southern  Italy.  The  fact 
that  Italy  was  occnpIe<l  by  dill'erent  races,  and  has  a  variety  f>f 
cHmates  and  |)roducts  would  tend  to  make  her  a  land  of  many 
peo}»les,  each  under  its  own  government,  but  the  sea  to  tlie  east, 
south,  and  west,  and  the  Al[)s  to  the  north  ultimately  ensured 
her  unity.  Komt;  on  tlie  \\est  coast,  wliere  the  plains  and  the 
harbors  lie,  was  lier  natural  capital.  The  Italians  were  mainly 
farmers  and  slieplierds,  had  a  compact  family  organization,  and 
worshi[)ped  many  gods. 


(TIAPIl^U  Hi 

K()MI<:  I   XDKli    rilK  KINCJS 
(TO  50*.)  H.  <  .) 

How  tlie  city  of  Rome  developed  and  was  goverue<l  durhiK  the  le^al 
period  —How  the  stories  of  the  seven  Idngs  f;rew  up. 

34.    What  Determined  the  Location  of  Rome.    The  Ro- 

manJwere  undoubtedly  right  in  attributing  the  importance  of 
their  native  city  to  the  commercial  advantages  which  its  location 
gave  it,  but  these  advan- 
tages can  hardly  have  ^ 
coimted  for  nuich  in  the 
minds  of  the  first  settlers 
on  iheTiber,  who  liad  little 
to  sell  to  others,  and  re- 
(juired  little  from  abroad 
to  satisfy  their  simple 
needs.  They  chose  this 
spot  on  the  left  bank  of 
tlie  Tiber  becau.se  it  was 
easy  to  defend.  The  hills 
furnished  them  a  natural 
stronghold.  The  sur- 
rounding ])lain  was  rea- 
sonably  well    ada|)ted 

to  tillage  and  i)asturage.  The  Tiber  aiforded  a  protection  to  the 
north,  and  yet  the  island  which  lies  in  the  river  opposite  the  city 
made  it  comi)aratively  easy  for  them  to  cross  to  the  northern 
bank.  Finally,  the  location  chosen  was  fourteen  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and,  therefore,  out  of  the  reach  of  pirates. 

35.  The  Growth  of  the  Early  City.    The  earliest  settlement 
was  on  the  Palatine  hill,  and  ])ortions  of  its  encircling- wall  may 

31 


SKI'I'I.rHUAI.  URN  FOR  ASHES  ( IN  THE  BHAPK 
(,!•  \\  IIVLIAN  IHTl,  Wnu  OTHKR  SMALL 
M;  IK   LIS      1,A'[  i:i.Y    l>Cf5    CI'     IN'     THK     FOKUM; 

I'ltonAni.v  OF  phi:    i;i<:h'1'H    oh    ninth    cen- 

THHV   BKEOHK   fllKIST 


.30 


ICOMW     IIISIOUV 


in  tlie  hriKMlcr  (jucstloiis  of  hkiu's  origin,  his  [)la('»  in  nature, 
and  llic  NK  aiiiii;;'  <»!"  IniirKiii  litV.  ( '(»iiM'(jUcntly  his  thoughts  wfrt 
(Hrectt'd  onh  to  the  atVairs  of  ('\<r\(lav  life.  The  i)rac'ti('anK'nt 
of  liis  mind,  w  hicli  of  course  d<'tennined  the  form  of  liis  religion, 
was  in  tui-ti  emplm^i/etl  hy  that  reh<;-ion  itsi  If.  So  far  as  char- 
acter was  c(»iiccrned,  his  n-ods  were  .^cnrcc'.y  \(v^t«'(|  with  moral 
c|ualities,  his  reliijion  did  not  hold  up  ex.iltcd  ethical  standards, 
nor  did  it  appeal  to  spiritual  molivcsof  a  iiit'-h  order,  hut  it  did 
enforce  the  ohserviniec  of  yood  friitli,  it  iiicule:ifc(|  ;•  sj)irit  of 
discipline,  a  lii^li  rei";,ird  for  I  lie  iiile;;iily  of  family  lih-  and  a  re- 
sj)ect  h)r  the  (trderly  conduet  of  affairs,  and  all  this  -^er^('^l  to 
streuiiihen  the  moral  fihi'e  of  the  pcoj)le. 

33.  Summary  Description  of  Italy.  A  sur\<y  of  Italy  in 
tlie  early  ])criod  shows  ns  that  the  important  peoj>!es  v\ cit  the 
Etruscan>,  the  (ii*eelv~,  audof  ihe  Italie  slock,  the  liatin^,  and 
the  trihes  w  hieh  spoke  (  )sean.  I^lrui'ia  is  of  special  interest  to 
US  hecaiix'  -.he  introduced  some  elements  of  (Jreek  civilization 
amoni>'  t!ie  Latins.  I.jiter  tlie  Latins  were  <ireatly  inlhienced  hy 
tlie  ^ireck  towns  ahtnir  tlie  coast  of  southern  Italy.  'I'he  fact 
that  Italy  was  (n<iipied  \)\  din"ci-enl  races,  and  has  a  variety  of 
climates  and  |)r(Mliicls  wouM  tend  to  make  her  a  lajhl  of  many 
peoples,  each  niider  its  own  p»\«-rnment,  hut  the  sea  to  the  c:,s{, 
south,  and  west,  an<l  the  Alps  to  the  north  ultimately  ensureil 
her  unity.  Home  <»n  the  w<'sl  coast,  where  the  jdains  and  the 
harhors  lie,  was  her  natural  «  apital.  The  Italians  were  nnunly 
farmers  jind  shepherds,  had  a  <'om|)act  family  or.»i;anization,  and 
worshipjH'd  many  gods. 


CIIAPTKH  III 

KOMI-:  I   \1>I.I{    riM-  K1N*!>^ 

(TO  oO'.)  H.  (  .) 

How  the  city  of  lionic  develciu'.l  uii.l  was  j^^overiuHl  .lurin-   the  o'.xal 
period  -How  tlie  stories  of  tlie  seven  kiii^^s  ^^evv  up. 

34.  What  Determined  the  Location  of  Rome.  The  Ro- 
ma ns  were  undonhtedly  right  in  attrihutin..!;  the  importance  of 
Ihcir  native  city  U>  the  connnereial  advantages  which  its  location 
u-ave  it,  hut  tliese  advan- 
tages  can  hardly  have 
counted  h>r  much  In  the 
minds  of  the  lirst  selth'is 
on  lhel'iber,whohad  little 
to  sell  to  others,  and  re- 
(|uire(I  little  from  ahroad 
to  satisfy  their  simple 
needs.  They  chose  this 
sj)ot  on  the  left  hank  of 
the  Tiher  hecausc  it  was 
easy  to  deh'ud.  The  hills 
furnished  them  a  natural 
stronghold.  The  sur- 
rounding plain  was  rea- 
sonahly    wcdl    adapted 

to  tillage  and  i)aslnragc.  The  Tiber  alh>rded  a  protection  to  the 
iHuMh,  and  yet  the  island  which  lies  in  the  river  opt)osite  the  city 
made  it  eom[)aratively  easy  h)r  them  to  cross  to  the  northern 
hank.  Finally,  the  l(»cation  chosen  was  h)urteen  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river,  and,  therefore,  out  of  the  reach  of  pirates. 

35.  The  Growth  of  the  Early  City.    The  earliest  settlement 
was  on  the  PalatiiH'  hill,  and  pi»rtions  of  its  encirchng  wall  may 

31 


SI  I'll. fill!  \i,  TUN  r-'U    \sin.s  (in   Tin;  ^^hai-i. 

,,,-     ^  s,      n    VI. IAN      Ml     I   >.      Wnil      OIIIKU    SMAI.l. 
\i;  I  I,    I.I   s      I    \  I  l.l.V     Dlf!     I    r     IN       IHi;     FOKl    M'. 

|.i;nii  \  iti.v    «•!    1111.     i  i<:iirn    «'i:     ninih    i'I.N- 
11   It  V    Itl.l  <  IKI.  <  Micis  r 


SJd 


ROM  VV   HlSToltV 


still  Ik"  st'cii,  tnun  avIikIi  lite  <«iiii|»jiss  of  tin-  juimitivc  city  iiiav 
he  fairly  well  iiifcn-ctl.      A>  tiinrwcnt  on,  llic  jK>(>ulatinii  in  llic 
city  and  in  tlic  district  iiiiiiicdiatcly  aUoiit  it  ^rcw,  for  the  ad- 
vaiita*rcs  (tf  tlic  location  attractcil  many,  ami  iicw-coniers  wi-rc 
gladly  rccciv.'d  hccansc  «.f  tlic  fi<':litin,u'  ^trcnj^th  which  they  added 
to   tlic   c»»innnniity.      Independent    sctiicfnents   had   l»ccn    made 
iij)on  sonic  of  the  ncij^diliorini:  hilN,  .nid  in  coni-sc  of  time  thc\ 
too  cast  in  their  l<»t  witli  the  Palatine  <-oinniiniity,  aFul  a  jn'cat 
wall  \v:i>  Iniih  which  made  Home  flie  (  ity  of  tlic  Seven  Hills,  for 
it  includcil  within  its  limits  the  I'al  itiiic.  the  »  "apitoline,  the  (^ni- 
rinal,  the  Ks(|iiiline,  the  (a-hiin,  th<'  \'iiniiial,  and  the  Aventine. 
36.  The  Legendary  Ancestors  of  the  Romans.    ( rreek  and 
Ivoiaan  writers,  without  any  historical  eviden*  •'  on  which  \(t  base 
tlicir  conclusions,  d.ite  the  tonndini^-  ^>\'  the  .ity  all  the  wav  from 
75.*]  to  7  17  H.  ('.      The  fir>t  of  these  date>,  which  Varro.  a  Roman 
antiquarian  of  ('icero'>   time,  adopted,  is  |H>rha|)s  the  one  most 
<-omnifnily  accepted  l»y  the  ancients.     Sclwtlars  liave  csiahlished 
tile    fact    that    ihe   peojile    v  ho  founded    Home,   lik--    the  other 
Italians,  came  from   the  same  stock  he  (Jreeks,  and  proh- 

al»Iy  entered  the  pciiiiiMiJa  from  the  north,  hut  the  ac<-ount 
of  their  <irin;iii  v  Inch  h'oman  traditi(»n  preserved  was  a  fardiHer- 
ent  one.  The  story  ruin  thai  ^' Ixai  Troy  had  fallen,  Aeneas 
fted  a(a-oss  the  M'a  and,  alter  snlh-rin<i  much  at  l!ie  handsof  «rods 
and  men,  came  to  tlic  wv^t  coa>l  ..f  Italy,  where  he  was  kindlv  re- 
ceived hy  Kino-  I.atinus.  Acia-as  to(.k  Lavinia,  the  kini^^'s  dauirh- 
ter.  in  m:iirii"-e.  an<l,  after  her  father',  death,  nil.'d  <,ver  the  two 
I"'**f*'''^  '*■'"'  "  '  eived  th.-  hame  of  Latins  from  k'iim'  I..itinus. 
Ascanin>  >nccecdcd  his  tather  Aen< c.  and  f<unided  a  new  citv 
eallccl  All. a  Lon;!'a,  where  he  and  hi.  de>e(  ndaiit.  rei^nied  for 
iiiany  ; 

37.  The  Legend  of  Romulus  and  Remus.    \ow  it  .  ame  to 

pas^  that  uiiilr  Ximutor  v\  a  >  ».ti  the  thn.tir  .,f  Alha  hi>  vourif^er 
brother,  Amuliiis,  foiancil  a  wicked  plot  a^aiii>f  him,  <lro\('  him 
into  exile,  sl.-u  hi.  .on.,  and  U^-ci-il  his  daiuditcr  IMiea  Silvia 
to  become  a  \'.-.t..l  X'irHJ,,.  I5,,t  Hhe;,  Silvia  was  bel(»ved  of 
flic  irod  M.r-    ;,Md  ^If    '...-    'am  tuH,  ^,,11..      Whenaipon  Amu- 


ROM  E  I'M) i:U  THE  KTXCS 


33 


lius  was  wroth  and  set  tlic  boys  adrift  in  the  'J'iber,  but  the  river 
carried  the  basket  in  which  they  had  been  placed  to  the  foot  of 
the  Palatine,  where  thev  were  found  and  suckled  by  a  she-wolf. 
The  kin<,^'s  sheplienl,  Faiistulus,  came  upon  them,  took  them 
with  him  to  his  own  house,  brou«i:lit  them  up  in  his  household, 
and  named  them  Romulus  and  Henius.  When  they  had  reached 
man's  estate  they  slew  the  usurper,  Amulius,  and  restored  their 


Till     <  MlTiHINi      W  l>Kr   STTK!  INC    KOMI    II    ^     \  \  |>    lO'.MeS 

<j:randl'allier,  Xumitor,  to  the  throne.  In  the  fullness  of  time 
the  two  youn<;  men  went  forth  from  Alba  Lon<i:a  with  other  men 
of  their  own  town  to  found  a  new  city  at  the  point  where  the  Tiber 
had  east  them  up,  and  when  they  came  thither,  ]{emus  took  his 
stand  on  the  Aventini^  to  learn  the  will  of  the  j]^ods  from  the 
fli;rht  of  the  birds;  Uomulus  on  the  Palatine.  As  the  mornin«]j 
dawned,  six  vultures  a|)peared  before  Uemus,  but  twelve  W(Te 
vouchsafed  to  R(miulus.  So  Romulus  foundecl  the  eitv  on  the 
PalatiiK*,  and  Remus,  who  seoflVd  at  the  weakness  of  his 
brother's  wall,  Ik*  slew.  Then  he  «^^atliered  the  whole  peo])le  into 
three  tribes,  the  Rainnes,  the  Titics,  and  tlu'  l.uceres,  and  each 
tribe  he  divided  into  ten  curia<\  and  from  each  c///vV/  he  took  one 


Sm 


ROM  AX  HISTORY 


.still  lie  seen,  frain  which  ilic  ((unpjiss  of  the  priinitive  city  may 
be  fairly  well  inferred.      As  time  went  on,  the  j>(»|)ulation  in  the 
eity  and  in  the  district  inniiediatcly  ahont  it  grew,  for  the  ad- 
vanta^ns  of  the  location  attracted  many,  and  new-coraers  were 
gladly  received  hecansc  of  the  fijuditing  strength  which  they  added 
to  tlie  eommnnity.      Independent   s<'ttlcmcnts   had   heen   made 
upon  some  of  the  ncigliltoritiu:  hills,  and  in  course  of  time  they 
too  cast  in  tlieir  lot  with  the  Palatine  <i)mmunitv,  and  a  j'-reat 
wall  was  built  whicli  made  Koine  the  City  of  tlie  Seven  Hills,  for 
it  included  within  its  limits  the  l*alatine,  the  ( 'apitoline.  the  Qui- 
rinal,  the  Escpiiline,  the  Ca^lian,  the  \'iminal,  and  the  Aventine. 
36.  The  Legendary  Ancestors  of  the  Romans,    (rreekand 
Ivoiiian  writers,  without  any  historical  evidence  on  which  to  l)ase 
their  conclusions,  chite  the  founding  of  the  city  all  the  way  from 
7')'A  to  7  17  B.  c.     The  first  of  these  dates,  which  Varn»,  a  Roman 
anticpiarian  of  dcero's  time,  adopted,  is  perliaps  the  one  most 
commonly  aeee|)ted  by  the  ancients.     Scholars  liave  established 
the    fact    that  the   JH'nple   wha  founded    Home,  like   the  other 
Italians,  came  from  the  same  stock  as  the  (Greeks,  and  |)rob- 
ably  entered    the    ])eninsula    from   the  north,   but   the    account 
of  their  origin  ^^  Inch  Roman  tradition  j)reserved  was  a  far  dilFer- 
ent  one.     Ttie  story  runs  that  wlien  Troy  had  fallen,  Aeneas 
fled  across  the  sea  and,  after  sufFcring  much  at  tlie  hands  of  gods 
and  men,  came  to  the  west  coa^t  i)f  Italy,  where  he  was  kindly  re- 
ceived by  King  Latinus.    Aeneas  took  I.avinia.  the  king's  daugh- 
ter, in  marriage,  and,  after  her  father's  death,  ruled  over  the  two 
peo{)les,  wlio  receive<l  the  name  of  Latins  from  King  Latinus. 
Ascanius  succeeded  his  father  Aeneas,  and  founded  a  new  city 
called  Alba   Longa,  where  he  and  his  descendants  reigned  for 
manv  \-ears. 

37.  The  Legend  of  Romulus  and  Remus.  Xowit  came  to 
I>ass  that  while  Xumitor  was  on  the  throne  of  Alba  his  younger 
brother,  Ainulius,  formed  a  wicked  plot  against  him,  drove  him 
into  exile,  slew  his  sons,  and  forced  his  dam/hter  I' hea  Silvia 
to  become  a  ^'-Mal  \'innn.  Hut  lihea  Silvia  was  beloved  of 
the  god  Mars,  and  she  hore  him  twin  sons.     Whereupon  Amu- 


ROME  rXDER  THE  KTNG.S 


33 


lius  was  wroth  and  set  the  bovs  adrift  in  the  Tiber,  but  the  river 
carried  the  basket  in  wdiich  they  had  been  placed  to  the  foot  of 
the  Palatine,  where  they  were  found  and  suckled  by  a  she-w^olf. 
The  king's  shepherd,  Faustulus,  came  upon  them,  took  them 
with  him  to  Iiis  own  house,  l)rought  them  up  in  his  household, 
and  named  them  Romulus  and  Remus.  When  they  had  reached 
man's  estate  they  slew  the  usurper,  Amuhus,  and  restored  their 


*■  ^*k~-:>^i'»!S^' Iwi.*;*.-- 


■■-   -A^-la.-^-tatu^tm'dn-Ji^^'Z 


L 


THE  <Al'lTni.INK   WOLF  srCKMNr.   ROMULUS   AND   UIOMUS 

grandfather,  Numitor,  to  the  throne.  In  the  fullness  of  time 
the  two  young  men  went  forth  from  Alba  Longa  with  other  men 
of  their  own  town  to  found  a  ne\\'  city  at  the  point  where  the  Tiber 
had  cast  them  up,  and  when  they  came  thither,  Remus  took  his 
stand  on  the  Aventine  to  learn  the  will  of  the  gods  from  the 
flight  of  the  birds;  Romulus  on  the  Palatine.  As  the  morning 
dawned,  six  vultures  appeared  before  Remus,  but  twelve  were 
vouchsafed  to  Romulus.  So  Romulus  founded  the  city  on  the 
Palatine,  and  Remus,  wdio  scoffed  at  the  weakness  of  his 
brother's  wall,  he  sle\v.  Then  he  gathered  the  whole  people  into 
three  tribes,  the  Ramnes,  the  Tities,  and  the  Luceres,  and  each 
tril)e  he  divided  into  ten  curiae,  and  from  each  cwrm  he  took  one 


34 


KoMAX  HISTORY 


hundri'J  incii  to  serve  on  foot  and  ten  horsemen.  He  chose  also 
from  among  the  people  one  Innnhed  .scnc.s,  or  old  men,  to  form 
a  senate,  whieh  should  eounsel  him  upon  matters  touching 
the  good  of  the  whole  people. 

38.  Numa  Pompilius,  TuUus  Hostilius,  and  Ancus  Mar- 
tius.  And  when  Uoniulus  had  l>een  gathered  to  his  fathers,  the 
senate  chose  Numa  I*ompilius,  a  Sabine,  to  reign  in  his  stead. 
Now  Numa  loved  })eace  and  turned  the  people  from  war  to 
working  witli  tlieir  hands  and  to  tilling  the  soil.  King  TuIIus 
Hostilius  was  a  man  of  war.  He  conquered  and  destroyed  the 
citv  of  Alba  Lon^ra,  and  brought  the  Albans  to  Rome,  settUng 
them  u|)on  tlie  Ca/lian  hill.  Ancus  ^Martins,  the  fourth  king, 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  his  grandfather,  Numa. 

39.  Tarquinius  Priscus.  While  Ancus  still  sat  on  the  throne, 
a  Greek,  Lucumo  by  name,  frorn  Tarquinii  in  Etruria,  came  to 
Rome  with  his  wife  Tanarjuil,  and  as  they  drew  near  to  the  city 
an  eagle  came  from  on  liigli,  ])luckedoff  the  cap  of  Lucumo,  and 
then,  descending,  placed  it  again  upon  his  liead.  From  this 
omen  Tanaquil  knrw  tliat  the  gods  planned  great  things  for 
her  husband.  At  Rome  he  found  favor  with  the  king  and  with 
the  people,  and  when  Ancus  Martins  died,  he  was  raised  to  the 
throne  with  the  title  of  Tarcpiinius  Priscus,  from  the  city  whence 
he  came.  He  waged  war  against  the  Sabines  and  Latins  and 
overcame  tliem.  He  l>uilt  a  circus  for  tlie  peoj)le  in  which 
races  might  be  held,  drew  off  the  water  from  between  the  hills 
by  a  great  drain,  and  did  many  things  to  make  the  city  beautiful. 

40.  Servius  TuUius.  In  the  household  of  King  Tarquin 
was  a  slave  l>oy,  Ser\  ins  'rullins  l)y  name,  and  one  day  as  this 
boy  slept,  those  near  liim  beheld  a  flame  burning  about  his  head, 
and  yet  he  suffered  no  harm  tlierefroni.  Thereupon  the  queen 
knew  that  he  had  been  cliosen  for  some  high  place,  and  she 
married  him  to  one  of  her  (laughters,  and  when  Tarquinius 
had  been  slain  bv  men  whom  the  sons  of  Ancus  Martins  had 
chosen  to  that  end,  Servius  Tullius  was  made  king  in  his  stead. 
During  his  reign  tlie  Qnirinal,  Viminal,  and  Esquiline  hills  were 
added  to  the  citv,  and  he  built  a  great  wall  about  Rome,  and 


ROME  I  NDEK  THE  KINGS 


35 


divided  the  i)eoi)le  into  classes  according  to  their  wealth,  and 
each  class  into  centuries,  or  companies  of  one  hundred,  to  serve 
under  him  as  fighting  men,  some  as  liorsemen  and  some  on  foot, 
and  these  companies  of  warriors  met,  when  the  king  called  them 
together,  to  decide  u[)on  war  or  peace,  and  certain  other  great 
matters. 

41.  The  Myth  of  Tarquin  the  Proud.  But  Servius  Tullius 
was  slain  by  the  son  of  Tanpiinius  Priscus,  to  whom  he  had  given 
his  daughter,  TuUia,  in  marriage.  When  Tullia  heard  of  her 
father's  death  she  drove  to  the  senate  house  to  greet  her  husband. 
In  the  way  lay  the  dead  body  of  her  father,  yet  she  turned  not 
her  chariot  aside  and  her  chariot  wheels  were  stained  with  her 
father's  blood.  Tarquin  the  Proud,  as  the  new  king  was  called, 
forced  the  people  to  labor  at  the  great  works  which  his  father 
had  begun,  until  they  murmured.  Now,  it  chanced  that  the 
king  was  besieging  Ardea,  in  the  country  of  the  Rutulians,  and 
his  son  Sextus,  leaving  the  canq)  secretly  by  night,  betook  him- 
self to  the  house  of  his  cousin  Tarquinius  Collatinus  and  dis- 
honored Lucretia,  the  wife  of  Collatinus;  and  Lucretia  told 
Collatinus  and  her  father  Lucretius  of  what  had  befallen  her, 
and  when  she  had  told  them  all,  she  thrust  a  knife  into  her 
heart.  Thereupon  Lucretius  and  Collatinus,  with  their  friends 
Publius  Valerius  and  Junius  Brutus,  called  the  people  together, 
and  the  king  with  his  whole  household  was  driven  into  exile.. 

42.  Analysis  of  the  Regal  History.  This  is  the  story,  with 
variations  at  certain  points,  of  the  founding  of  Rome  and  of  the 
seven  kings,  which  is  recounted  in  prose  by  Cicero  and  Livy, 
and  in  verse  by  Vergil.  It  is  manifestly  fictitious.  It  is  reason- 
ably certain  that  the  Romans  kept  no  records  during  the  regal 
period,  and  even  if  records  had  been  kept,  they  would  have  been 
destroyed  in  the  fourth  century  B.  c.  when  the  city  was  taken  and 
burned  by  the  Gauls.  There  were  no  documents,  then,  upon 
which  this  account  could  rest,  and  if  it  is  based  on  oral  tradition, 
absolutely  no  reliance  can  be  placed  upon  it,  because  in  the  cen- 
turies which  elapsed  before  this  tradition  was  reduced  to  a  writ- 
ten form,  the  true  course  of  events  must  have  been  hopelessly 


36 


ROM  AX  HISTORY 


lost  iiiul  (listortfd.  If  thru"  wen-  no  other  reason,  the  similarity 
which  iiuuiy  of  the  lioinaii  tales  l)ear  to  stories  told  in  Greek 
literature  would  show  that  lliev  do  not  belon'^^  to  Roman  history. 
Several  cities  of  Greece  and  of  southern  Italy,  for  example,  ac- 
cording to  the  mythical  accounts  of  their  early  history,  were 
founded  by  twins,  wlio  were  cast  out  hy  tlieir  natural  protectors, 
and  suckled  1)V  animals.  The  stor\-  wlilch  attributed  the  found- 
ing  of  the  city  to  twin  brotliers  was  adofitcd,  because  it  furnished 
a  ready-made  ex[)lanatioii  of  tlic  hitci-  svstem  of  government  by 
two  consuls.  The  name  Romuhis  was  derived  from  Roma,  and 
Remus  comes  from  tlic  sana-  source  with  a  slight  modification. 
Mars  was  made  the  father  of  T^omuhis  and  Remus  because  of 
the  warlike  character  of  the  Romans,  and  the  two  bovs  are  reared 
by  a  wolf,  because  the  wolf  was  a  sacred  animal  among  the 
Latins.  In  a  word,  a  large  part  of  the  traditional  narrative  of 
events  at  Rom*'  during  the  regal  |)eriod  is  made  u|)  of  Greek 
stories;  and  more  or  less  cleverly  dovetailed  into  these  produc- 
tions of  the  Greek  fancy,  or  into  tlie  tales  borrowed  from  Greek 
history,  are  folklore  stories,  explanations  invented  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date  to  account  for  the  existence  of  ancient 
monuments,  of  old  customs  and  of  long  established  institutions, 
and  some  remnant  of  authentic  tradition. 

43.  The  Growth  of  the  Narrative.  The  process  of  select- 
ing suitable  elements  for  the  story  of  Rome  from  this  constantly 
growing  mass  of  myths,  and  of  welding  them  into  a  continuous 
narrative  extended  without  doubt  over  many  generations.  In 
all  probability  the  story  of  the  early  period  first  became  coher- 
ent and  took  on  a  permanent  fonn  when  it  was  set  down  in 
writing  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  by  the  poets  Naeviiis  and 
Ennius  and  the  prose  writer  Fabius  Pictor. 

44.  What  our  Sources  of  Information  Are.  Notwith- 
standing the  fictitious  character  of  the  story  of  the  seven  kings, 
we  can  get  some  light  upon  tlie  life  and  institutions  of  the  early 
city.  Tradition  helps  us  a  little,  when  it  is  supported  by  other 
evidence.     The  remains  which  exist  of   the  period,    like   the 


ROME  t  NDER  THE  KIN'(;S 


37 


"Wall  of  Scrvius"  and  articles  of  ])ottery,  teach  us  something  of 
the  size  of  the  city  and  of  the  progress  which  the  Romans  in 
early  times  had  made  in  the  arts. 


THK    SKUVIAN     CITY 


45.  The  Appearance  of  the  City.  From  some  of  these 
sources  of  information  we  get  an  idea  how  the  city  of  Rome 
must  have  looked  in  carlv  times.  The  houses  were  built  of  wood 
and  thatched  with  straw.  The  roofs  were  pointed  and  had  open- 
ings in  the  centre  which  let  out  the  smoke  and  admitted  the  light 
to  the  single  s((uare  room  within,  which  was  tlie  living  room  for 
the  entire  family.  Some  houses  doul)tless  had  small  sleeping 
rooms  or  store  rooms  adjoining,  but  there  was  no  second  story. 
Within  the  wall  of  the  city  we  must  think  of  buildings  of  this  sort 
grouped  together  in  little  villages  on  the  tops  of  the  several  hills, 
while  between  these  small  communities  lay  fields  and  valleys. 
Each  of  these  hill-settlements  had  its  characteristic  life,  which 
found  ex|)rcssion  especially  in  the  worship  of  its  tutelary  deity 
or  deities  at  the  turf  altars  to  be  s(vn  here  and  there. 


38 


ROMAX  HI  STORY 


46.  Improvements  made  by  the  Tarquins.  The  valleys 
l)et\veen  the  hills  were  sul)ji'('t  to  iniinthitions  from  tlie  Tiber,  and 
one  of  the  earliest  improvements  of  the  eity  eonsisted  in  eon- 
4{..struetinf]j  a  hii^^e  sewer  known  as  the  Cloaea  Maxima,  which 
drained  the  market  })la(e  or  Forum,  and  protected  the  city  in 
times  of  hii^h  water.  Tliis  structure  is  attribut(;d  by  tradition  to 
the  Tarcjuins,  who  are  also  said  to  liave  erected  temples  and 
other  public  buildini^s,  the  most  notal)le  of  which  was  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  on  the  Caj)itoline.  To  this  period  of  the  last  three 
kings,  tradition  also  assigne(l  the  eoiistruetion  of  the  great  en- 
circling wall.     Tlie  assigmiieiit  of  tliese  ;;rcat  pubHe  works  to 


A     POHTION    OK    THK    SKKVIAN    WALL 


the  Tarcpiins  harmoniz(\s  well  witli  tlie  tradition  that  the  first 
Tarcjuin  carijc  from  Ktruria,  because  the  art  of  building  was  de- 
veloj)ed  at  an  «arlier  period  in  Ktruria  than  in  liatium,  and  cer- 
tain features  (»f  early  Latin  areliifeeture — the  use  of  the  arch, 
for  instance  —  were  aj)parently  borrowed  from  the  Etruscans. 

47.  Agriculture  the  Main  Industry.  The  main  industry 
of  the  people  was  agriculture,  and  for  generations,  or  centuries 
even,  it  was  regarded  as  the  freeman's  natural  occupation.  This 
fact  was  of  immense  importance  in  determining  the  eh^Facter  of 
the  individual  Roman  and  of  the  state  which  he  bui^  up.  A 
nation  of  independent  farmers  is  jdmost  sure  to  sho\wiore  stead- 
fastness and  cons(T\atism  tlian  a  people  made  up  of  traders  and 


ROME  UNDER  THE  KINGS 


39 


i 


handicrafts-men.  Tliis  characteristic  bent  of  the  Romans  to- 
ward farming  accounts  in  part  also  for  the  permanency  of  their 
subsequent  coiKpiests.  Having  conquered  a  peoj^le,  they  in- 
variably took  from  them  a  part  of  their  land,  settled  their  colonists 
on  the  newly  acvpiired  fields,  and  made  the  territory  Roman  in 
the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  INIembership  in  the  military 
organization  of  the  regal  period,  jis  we  shall  presently  see,  was 
practically  restricted  to  freeholders,  so  that  before  the  close  of 
the  j)erio(l  elan  ownership  of  arable  land  must  have  given  place  to 
individual  ownersliip.  There  were  probably  fcAV  slaves,  and 
the  small  farms  were  tilled  by  the  pafcrfamilias  and  his  sons. 
Larger  ])ropertii's  were  held  by  the  knights,  as  those  who  served 
as  horsemen  in  the  army  were  ealle<l,  who  j)robably  granted  small 
holdings  to  the  landless  on  condition  of  receiving  a  share  of  the 
I)roduce.  In  this  way  a  relation  of  dependence,  or  clientship 
as  it  was  called,  grew  up. 

48.  State-ownership  of  Pasture-lands.  The  ]>asture- 
landswere  not  acijuired  l)y  individuals  when  the  arable  land  was 
divided,  but  passed  over  from  llu'  elan  to  the  state.  Upon  these 
lands  citizens,  on  the  payment  of  a  small  sum,  were  allowed  to 
pasture  their  cattle.  One  can  readily  see  that  the  rich  "man, 
through  the  large  politicjd  influence  which  his  wealth  gave  him, 
might  crowd  the  poor  man  out  of  this  land  and  out  of  the  rest 
of  the  state  land,  and  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  control  of  state  *^ 
land  was  one  of  the  earliest  questions  at  issue  between  the  rich 
and  the  poor. 

49.  The  Industrial  Arts  and  Trade.  The  natural  bent  of 
the  Romans  for  agriculture  and  the  premium  put  on  the  owner- 
ship of  land  by  the  military  system  of  the  early  ])eriod  tended  to 
dei)ress  the  industrial  arts,  but  in  tlie  city  itself  such  crafts  as 
those  of  the  coppersmith,  goldsmith,  carpenter,  and  potter, 
flourished.  The  existence  of  the  goldsmith's  art  indicates 
that  some  trade  was  carried  on,  for  no  gold  is  found  within  the 
limits  of  Latium,  but  the  trade  must  have  been  insignificant,  * 


RO.MAX   lllsroKV 


46.  Improvements  made  by  the  Tarquins.  Tlie  valleys 
bt'twcrn  \\w  liills  wvrv  subject  to  inundations  from  the  Tihcr,  and 
one  of  tlie  earliest  inij)rovcnients  of  the  eilv  consisted  in  con- 
struetiiiii;  a  hui':e  scwcr  known  as  the  ( 'loaea  Maxima,  wliicli 
drained  the  market  j)hiee  or  Forum,  and  j»role(  tc<l  the  city  in 
times  of  hl'di  water.  This  sirncfure  is  allrihuted  hylracHtion  to 
the  I'aniuins,  who  are  also  said  to  have  erected  temjihs  and 
other  |)ublic  l)uildin<':s,  tlu-  most  notable  of  which  was  the  temple 
of  Ju|)iter  on  the  Capitolinc.  'Va  this  j)erio<l  of  the  last  three 
kini!s,  tradition  also  assii^ncd  the  constructioti  of  llic  <i:reat  en- 
cirelinji;  wall,     'i'lie  assi<,nniiciit  of  lli<-  I   public  works  to 


A     I'OHIION     OK     nil      Sl.HVIAN'     WALL. 


the  'l'ar(|uins  harmoni/js  w<  11  with  the  tradition  that  the  first 
'I'anjuin  cai.ic  from  Kiruria,  because  the  art  of  })uil(lin<i:  was  de- 
\«'loj)ed  at  an  earlier  period  in  I^lruria  than  in  Lalium,  and  cer- 
hiin  features  of  early  fvatin  arcliilecture — the  use  of  the  arch, 
for  instance     were  apparently  borrowe<l  from  the  Etruscans. 

47.  Agriculture  the  Main  Industry.  The  main  industry 
of  tlie  }»e<»ple  was  a;:ri(  ulture,  and  for  [i;enerati()ns,  or  centuries 
even,  it  was  reufanh'd  as  the  freeman's  natural  occupation.  This 
fac-twjisof  immense  importance  in  determining  the  character  of 
the  individual  l?oman  and  of  thr-  state  which  he  biiJi  up.  A 
nation  of  independent  farmers  is  almost  sure  to  shoWlTiore  stead- 
fastness and  conservatism  than  a  })eo])le  made  up  of  trailers  and 


KO.ME  INDKli  THE  KI\<iS 


39 


ha.ndicrafts-men.  This  characteristic  bent  of  the  Romans  to- 
ward farmin^^  aicounls  in  ])arl  also  for  the  periuanency  of  their 
subsecjuent  eo.icjuests.  IIavin<^  concpiered  a  ])eople,  they  in- 
variably took  from  them  a  ])art  of  their  land,  settled  their  colonists 
on  the  newly  ac(|uired  fields,  and  made  tlie  tc'rritory  Uoman  in 
the  strictest  sense  of  the  word.  .Membershii)  in  the  military 
organization  of  the  re<.!:al  period,  as  we  shall  presently  see,  w;is 
j)racticallv  rcstrictcMl  to  freeholders,  so  that  before  the  close  of 
the  p(>riod  clan  owncrshij)  of  arable  land  must  have  oiven  j)la('e  to 
individual  ownership.  'Hiere  were  probably  few  slaves,  and 
the  snuill  farms  were  tilled  by  the  jiafrrfdinilids'  and  his  sons, 
r^artrer  properties  were  Ix'ld  by  the  knij^rhts,  as  those  who  served 
as  horsemen  in  the  army  were  called,  who  probably  planted  small 
lioldiuiis  to  tlk'  landkvss  on  condition  of  recei\in*i"  a  shar<'  of  the 
produce.  \v\  this  way  ;i  relation  of  dei)en(lence,  or  clicntshii) 
as  it  was  called,  j^rew  up. 

48.  State-ownership  of  Pasture-iands.  The  pasture- 
lands  were  not  ac(phrcd  by  individuals  when  the  arable  land  was 
divided,  but  passed  over  fiom  the  clan  to  the  state.  l;|)on  these 
lands  citizens,  on  the  payment  of  a  small  sum,  were  allowed  to 
pasture  their  cattle.  (  )ne  can  readily  see  that  the  richinan, 
throu<i:h  the  laiye  political  influence  which  his  wealth  «iave  him, 
might  crowd  the  poor  man  out  of  this  land  and  out  of  the  rest 
of  the  state  land,  ami  it  is  not  surprising  that  the  control  of  state 
land  was  one  of  the  earliest  (luestions  at  issue  between  the  rich 
and  the  poor. 

49.  The  Industrial  Arts  and  Trade.  The  natural  bent  of 
the  l^)mans  for  agriculture  and  tlie  premium  J)ut  on  the  owner- 
ship of  land  by  the  military  system  of  the  early  period  tended  to 
dei)ress  the  industrial  arts,  but  in  the  city  itself  such  crafts  as 
those  of  the  coppersmith,  goldsmith-,  carpenter,  and  potter, 
flourished.  The  existence  of  the  goldsmith's  art  indicates 
that  some  trade  was  carried  on,  for  no  gold  is  found  within  the 
limits  of  Ljitium,  but  the  traik'  must  have  been  insignificant, 


40 


ROMAN    HISToia 


since  the  Romans  had  no  coined  inonev  for  several  centuries, 
but  depended  upon  crude  cop[)er  and  cattle,  as  media  of  ex- 
change. 

60.  The  King.  The  estabUshment  of  a  monarchy  meant 
the  transfer  of  the  supreme  power  from  the  elders  of  the 
clans  to  the  king,  who  was  the  chief  executive,  the  chief  priest, 
and  the  judge  of  the  peo[)le.  Fie  alone  could  levy  and  organize 
troops,  choose  leaders  and  conduct  a  campaign.  The  property 
of  the  state  was  under  his  control  and  he  was  the  representative 
of  the  community  in  its  relations  with  the  gods,  as  well  as  in  its 
dealings  with  other  communities. 

51.  His  Attendants,  Insignia,  and  Assistants.  He  was 
attended  by  twelve  lictors,  who  l>ore  over  tiie  left  shoulder  a 
I  bundle  of  rods,  called  the  /r/.vcr.v,  within  which  was  an  axe  to 
typify  the  king's  power  to  infli -t  corporal  punishment  or  to  im- 
pose the  deatli  penalty.  In  time  of  war  lie  wore  the  trahca,  a 
purple  cloak,  in  time  of  peace  a  purple  for/a.  He  was  assisted  by 
cpiaestors,  or  detective  officers,  Ijy  the  duumviri  prrducllioni,^,  or 
board  of  two  men  w  ho  investigated  charges  of  treason,  and  l)y  a 
tribune  wlio  commanded  the  cavalrv. 

« 

62.  The  Senate,  (\istoni  made  it  incumbent  on  the  kinjr 
to  seek  tlie  advice  of  the  senate  in  im|»ortant  matters,  but  it  was 
left  for  him  to  decide  w  liether  to  bring  a  |)articular  subject  be- 
fore it  or  not,  an<l  Iw  uas  free  to  a(loj)t  or  reject  its  advice,  as  he 
saw  fit.  The  pains,  or  iiiembers  ai  the  senate,  were  chosen  l)y 
the  king,  but,  in  accordance  with  principles  lianded  down  by 
tradition,  the  size  of  its  nieml)erslui)  increased  as  the  coimnunitv 
Ijew,  until  tlie  number  three  hundred  was  fixed  as  a  maximum. 

B3.  Patricians,  Plebeians,  and  Clients.  The  patres  were 
chosen  from  the  rich,  prominent  families,  and  membership  in 
the  seiuite  became  the  liereditary  privilege  of  the  families  thus 
distinguished.  It  is  ])robal)ly  for  this  reason  that  those  who  be- 
longed to  these  families  were  called  [)atricians.  The  rest  of  the 
freemen  in  the  city  c(.iistitiited  the  plehs  or  multitude,  as  the 
word  means.  The  <rr«at  njajority  of  those  who  lived  outside  the 
city  were  tenants  and  farm  laborers,  who  lacked  the  full  rights  of 


ROME  UNDER  THE  KINGS 


41 


freemen,  but  gained  certain  privileges  by  attaching  themselves 
as  clients  to  the  head  of  a  prominent  family.  Their  protector 
was  known  as  a  patronuSj  who  represented  them  before  the  law. 
In  return  for  protection  they  followed  their  patron  to  war,  and 
gave  him  such  a  part  of  the  return  from  the  land  which  they 
held,  or  from  the  profits  of  their  labor,  if  they  were  artisans,  as 
custom  determined. 

64.  The  Curia.  The  unit  in  the  division  of  the  people  for 
political  purposes  was  the  curia,  whose  organization  resembled 
that  of  the  family  in  that  it  had  common  religious  rites,  common 
festivals,  and  a  common  hearth.  The  curia  was  originally 
composed  of  those  who  dwelt  within  a  certain  area,  i.  e.,  it  was 
a  local  subdivision,  but  since  kinsmen  settled  near  one  another, 
both  the  element  of  kinship  and  of  neighborhood  entered  into 
its  organization.  There  were  ten  curiae  in  each  one  of  the  great 
tribes— the  Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres— into  which  the  popu- 
lation was  divided. 

66.  The  Comitia  Curiata.  These  thirty  curiae  constituted 
the  populus  Roman  US'  Quiritium  and  the  coinitia  curiata,  the 
organization  based  on  them,  was  the  only  popular  assembly  of  a 
political  or  semi-political  character  during  the  regal  period. 
This  body  met  to  consider  the  advisability  of  declaring  war,  to 
approve  or  disapprove  of  a  newly  elected  king,  and  to  take-up 
certain  other  general  matters,  especially  those  affecting  the 
,clans.  The  place  of  meeting  was  the  Comitium,  at  the  corner 
of  the  Forum.  The  action  of  the  assembly  was  not  determined 
by  a  majority  vote  of  all  the  people,  but  each  ciiria  had  one  vote; 
a  majority  of  the  members  of  a  curia  determined  the  vote  of  a 
curia,  and  a  nuijority  of  the  curiae  settled  the  vote  of  the  whole 

assembly. 

66.  The  Servian  Reorganization  of  the  Army.  The  early 
army  was  also  based  on  the  curia,  but  under  the  Servian  re- 
organization, which  is  so  called  because  tradition  attributes  it  to 
Servius  Tullius  freemen  were  divided  into  classes  on  the  basis  of 
the  land  which  they  held,  and  were  required  to  furnish  horses  or 
a  more  or  less  expensive  equipment  of  armor  according  to  their 


42 


ROMAN  HISTORY 


wealth.  Each  class  was  divided  into  a  certain  number  of  groups 
of  men,  and  the  entirv'  army  contained  one  hundred  and  ninety- 
three  of  these  groups,  or  centuries,  as  they  were  called. 

57.  Summary  of  Events  During  the  Regal  Period.  The 
city  of  Rome,  first  c\stabhslied  on  the  Palatine,  soon  came  to  oc- 
cupy the  Seven  Flills.  The  stories  of  the  seven  kings  are  legend- 
ary. Trustworthy  information  is  very  scanty.  The  city,  which 
was  made  up  of  little  villages  of  wooden  houses  on  the  tops  of  the 
hills,  was  much  improved  by  the  Tarquins.  It  was  governed  by 
a  king,  who  sought  advice  from  tlie  senate  and  on  very  important 
matters  from  the  people. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALY 

(509  -  264  B.  C.) 

How  Rome  conquered  the  Italians  and  Etruscans  of  Central  Italy,  the 
Gi-eeks  of  Southern  Italy,  and  thus  made  herself  mistress  of  the  whole  pen- 
insula. 

58.  Early  Republican  History.  The  traditional  story  of 
the  kings  is  in  large  measure  a  transparent  fiction.  The  history 
of  Rome  after  the  downfall  of  the  monarchy  seems  possible  and 
credible,  but  we  should  be  mistaken  in  accepting  the  early  part 
of  it  as  trustworthy.  The  Romans  had  no  written  records  for 
the  period,  and  consequently  we  cannot  rely  upon  the  accounts 
which  Latin  writers  give  us  of  the  causes  of  the  early  wars,  nor 
can  we  accept  their  stories  of  the  careers  of  great  generals 
abroad  and  of  distinguished  political  leaders  at  home,  but  we  can 
understand  how  Rome  succeeded  in  subduing  the  peoples  about 
her;  we  can  follow  her  step  by  step  in  her  career  of  conquest, 
and  reasoning  back  from  the  political  and  social  institutions  of 
the  historical  period,  we  can  trace  in  outline  at  least  the  internal 
history  also  of  the  first  two  centuries  after  the  expulsion  of  the 

kings. 

59.  Rome's  Loss  of  Prestige.  When  Tarquin  the  Proud 
had  been  driven  out,  the  people  chose  two  magistrates,  to  be 
elected  annually,  called  consuls,  to  rule  over  them.  This  change 
brought  with  it  a  great  loss  of  prestige  and  power  abroad.  A 
single  ruler,  whose  reign  extended  over  a  long  period  of  years, 
could  conduct  the  military  operations  of  the  state  and  direct  its 
policy  more  effectively  and  more  consistently  than  could  two 
magistrates  chosen  for  a  year  only. 

60.  Relations  with  Southern  Etruria.  Whether  the  story 
that  the  Tarquins  came  from  Etruria  really  points  to  the  control 
of  Rome  by  Etruria,  as  some  writers  think,  we  shall  probably 

43 


44 


HOMW    HISTORY 


never  know.  However  that  may  have  been,  their  expulsion 
involved  Rome  in  a  series  of  wars  with  the  cities  of  southern 
Etruria,  which  raged  at  intervals  for  a  century,  and  were  brought 
to  an  end  only  by  the  capture  and  complete  destruction  of  Veii, 
Rome's  most  persistent  Etruscan  enemy,  in  396  B.  c.  It  was 
in  one  of  these  wars  that  Horatius  and  his  two  comrades  are 
said  to  have  held  the  britlge  over  the  Tiber  against  the  entire 
host  of  the  enemy- 

61.  The  Latin  League.  But  the  Romans  were  not  obliged 
to  face  their  enemies  sintrlt'-lianded.  The  language,  religion, 
form  of  government,  as  well  as  the  enemies,  which  the  Romans 
and  the  Latins  luid  in  common,  led  to  an  alliance  between  the 
Romans  and  their  kinsmen.  The  treaty  with  the  Latins  was 
primarily  for  defense,  but  probably  also  guaranteed  to  the  citi- 
zens of  one  community  sj)ecial  privileges  in  their  dealings  with 
those  of  another.  Under  it  Koriio  was  allowed  to  enter  into  an 
alliance  with  the  league  as  a  unit,  and  not  with  the  separate 
Latin  towns.  Accordingly  the  spoils  and  conquered  territory 
were  divided  equally  between  her  and  the  league,  and  in  alter- 
nate years  the  commanding  general  was  a  Roman.  In  486,  ac- 
cording to  Livy  and  Dionysius,  the  alliance  was  strengthened 
by  the  adhesion  of  the  Hernici,  a  people  living  in  the  valley  of  the 
Trerus.  Both  these  treaties  were  most  fortunate  for  the  Romans. 
Between  Rome  and  the  Aerjuians  and  Volscians,  lay  the  towns 
of  the  Latin  league,  and  upon  these  towns  fell  the  task  of  de- 
fending the  plain  against  the  forays  of  the  men  of  the  mountains. 
She  could  rest  in  comparative  sjd'ety  behind  this  bulwark.  She 
might  look  forward,  in  fact,  to  the  time  when  her  allies,  weakened 
by  constant  attacks,  would  be  willing  or  could  be  forced,  to 
accept  her  sovereignty.  The  land  of  the  Hernici  lay  between  the 
territories  of  the  Aequians  and  Volscians.  It  prevented  a  union 
of  the  forces  of  the  two  communities,  and  furnished  a  convenient 
base  of  operations  in  an  attack  upon  either  people.  For  these 
reasons  the  support  of  the  I lernici  was  of  great  value  to  the 
other  two  members  of  the  league. 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALY 


45 


62.  The  Wars  of  the  Early  Republic.  In  spite  of  the 
protection  which  her  allies  gave  her,  for  sixty  years  after  the 
esUiblishnient  of  the  rei)ublie,  Rome  fought  for  her  life.  The 
people  oi"  Veii  harried  her  territory  on  the  north,  the  Volscians 
swept  the  coast  in  their  forays,  and  the  raids  of  the  Aequians 
broii<.'ht  them  not  infrecpiently  to  the  very  gates  of  the  city.  The 
mountaineers  were  no  match  for  the  allies  in  pitched  battle,  but 


Mii*>x*<:i<"  rtipi 


Tin:    WAKS    WITH    THE    KTUUSCANb,    AEQUIANS,   VOLSCIANS,   AND    SAMNITKS 

they  rarely  staked  their  fortunes  on  such  a  contest.  The  Aetpii- 
aiis,  descending  to  the  i)lains  like  a  whirlwind,  seized  their  booty 
and  were  back  in  their  mountain  fastnesses  before  the  troops  of 
the  allies  could  intercept  them,  and  once  in  their  native  hills 
it  was  dangerous  to  follow  them.  It  would  hardly  be  profitable 
for  us  to  follow  out  in  detail  the  stubborn  struggle  with  these 
two  peoples.  Their  power  was  broken  in  425,  and  by  the  middle 
of  the  next  century  Rome  had  established  colonies  at  Satricum, 
Setia,  Antium,  and  Tarracina,  and  against  the  Volscians  had 
made  good  Iier  claim  to  the  plain  as  far  south  as  the  last  men- 
tioned town.  The  territory  of  the  Aecjuians  was  annexed  in 
304,  and  we  hear  no  more  of  tliem  as  an  independent  people. 

63.  Why  the  Romans  Succeeded.     The  comparative  suc- 
cess, which,  as  we  have  noticed,  attended  the  Roman  armies  from 


46 


ROM  AX  HISTORY 


the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  on,  may  have  been  due  partly  to 
the  improvement  of  conditions  at  home,  which  had  brought 
about  a  better  feeling  betwcrn  the  patricians  and  the  j)lebeians, 
and  made  these  two  elements  of  the  population  join  more  har- 
moniously in  tlie  common  defense.  It  may  be  traced  in  part 
also  to  the  fact  tliat  the  enemies  of  Home  were  l)eing  attacked  by 
foes  behind  them.  Tli(>  Ac<|iiians  and  Volscians  were  weakened 
by  tlic  constant  assaults  ol  tlie  fierce  tribes  bevond  them,  and 
the  strength  wliich  they  niiirht  otherwise  have  used  against  the 
Romans  was  exliaustcd  in  reiielling  the  attacks  of  the  enemy  in 
their  rear.     The  Etruscans,  whose  power  Rome  would  have 

had  still  greater  reason  to 
dread,  and  whose  hostility 
was  evident  in  the  early 
l>art  of  the  fifth  century, 
hnd    suffered   serious    re- 
\<'rses    both   on   sea    and 
land.     Ex(e[>t  for  the  en- 
niily  of  Veii,  Rome  had 
little  to   fear  from  them. 
'J1ic  Syracusa ns   inflicted 
a   disastrous  defeat  upon 
them  in  a  naval  battle  off 
('uma,^    in  474,  and    rav- 
aged the  coast  of  Etruria; 
the   Samnites    captured 
Capua  in  423  and  robbed 
them  of  their  territory  in 
Campania,   and  through- 
out this  century  the  Etrus- 
cans  were   engaged  in  a 
fierce    struggle    with    the 
Celts,  or  the  Gauls  as  the 
Romans   called   them,  on   their  nortliern  frontier. 

64.  The  Invasion  of  the  Gauls,  387-382  B.  C.    These 
people  came  into  northern  Italy,  perhajis  from  the  valley  of  the 


AN    ANCIENT    INSCRIBED    STONE    LATELY 
rOUND    IN    THE    FORUM 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALY 


47 


Danube,  and  swept  everything  before  them.  They  entered 
Italy  in  3S7,  drove  back  the  Ligurians,  robbed  the  Umbrians  of 
their  territory  on  the  Adriatic,  and  seized  the  |)ossessions  of  the 
Etruscans  on  the  banks  of  the  Po.  In  382  the  Senones,  a  branch 
of  the  Celtic  l>e()ple,  liaving  crossed  the  Apennines,  laid  siege  to 
Clusium  in  Etruria.  A  Roman  embassy  at  Clusium,  it  is  said, 
aided  the  people  of  the  town,  and  so  angered  the  Celts  that  they 
advanced  upon  Rome.  The  Roman  army  which  met  them  on 
the  banks  of  the  AUia  a  few  miles  from  Rome  was  annihilated. 
The  city  was  panic-stricken.  The  fire  of  the  Vestals  and  the 
utensils  sacred  to  the  gods  were  carried  to  Caere;  some  of  the 
citizens  fled  to  the  neighboring  towns,  and  others  took  refuge  in 
the  citadel.  For  seven  months,  we  are  told,  the  barbarians  laid 
siege  to  the  citadel,  but  without  success,  although  one  night,  ac- 
cording to  a  fanciful  popular  tale,  they  had  nearly  succeeded  in 
scaling  the  heights  and  entering  the  fortress  when  its  Roman 
defendants  were  roused  by  tlie  cackling  of  the  sacred  geese  of 
Juno,  and  the  Ca|)itol  was  saved. 

65.  Withdrawal  of  the  Gauls  in  382  B.  C.  Wearied  by  the 
long  siege,  or  alarmed  by  the  report  that  their  possessions  in  the 
North  were  threatened  by  the  Veneti,  they  accepted  a  ransom  of 
one  thousand  j)oun(ls  of  gold,  or  al)out  $225,000,  as  the  price 
of  their  withdrawal  and  returned  to  the  North,  making  no  effort 
to  hold  permanently  what  they  had  overrun  in  central  Italy. 
Twice  in  subsequent  years  the  raids  of  the  Celts  brought  them 
within  striking  distance  of  Rome,  viz.,  in  360  and  348.  On  the 
first  occasion  the  Romans  did  not  venture  to  give  them  battle; 
in  348,  however,  the  Romans  and  their  allies  met  them  boldly, 
and  the  Celts  retreated  in  disorder. 

66.  Events  Following  the  Gallic  Invasion.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  invasion  of  the  Celts  was  probably  of  permanent 
advantage  to  Rome.  The  losses  which  Etruria  suffered  at  their 
hands,  following  closely,  as  these  disasters  did,  on  the  fall  of 
Veii,  made  it  easy  for  Rome  to  extend  her  control  over  southern 
Etruria.  Four  new  tribes  were  established  in  tlie  territory  of 
Veii,  Capena,  and  Falerii,  and  within  twenty  years  after  the 


46 


ROMW  HISTORY 


the  middle  of  the  fiftli  (•ciitun-  on,  may  liave  been  (hie  i)artly  to 
the  improvement  of  conditions  at  home,  wliieh  had  hron^dit 
about  a  Ix-tter  feehnj,^  between  the  jcitricians  and  the  i)lel)eians, 
ami  made  tlie^e  two  elemenf>  of  the  popuhition  join  more  har- 
moniously in  the  connnon  defense.  It  may  be  traced  in  part 
also  to  tlie  fact  that  the  enemies  of  Rome  were  bein<x  attacked  by 
foes  behind  them.  ITie  Acijuians  and  \'(.l>,eians  were  weakened 
by  the  constant  assaults  of  the  fierce  tribes  bevond  them,  and 
the  stren<(th  which  they  iiii'j:ht  othcrwiM-  have  used  a^'ainst  the 
Romans  was  exhausted  in  n^pellin*^'  the  attacks  of  the  enemv  in 
their  rear.     Tlie  Etruscans,   whose   power  Home   would  have 

had  still  <^n'eater  reason  to 
drend,  and  whose  hostility 
was  evident    in    the   earlv 
part  of  the  fifth  century, 
had    sullered    serious    re- 
\ei-ses    both    on    sea    and 
land.      Iv\«cj»t  for  the  en- 
mity of   Veii,   Rome   had 
little   to   fear  from   theni. 
The   Syracusan^    inflicted 
a    disastrous   defeat  U])on 
tliem  in  a  njival  l)attle  off 
( "unue    in   474,  and    rav- 
aired  the  coa-t  of  Etruria; 
llic   Samnites    captured 
Capua  in  423  and  robbed 
them  of  their  territory  in 
Tampania,    and   through- 
out this  ccnturv  the  Etrus- 
cans    Were    engaged   in  a 
fierce    struggle    with    the 
Celts,  or  the  Gauls  as  tlie 
Romans   called    them,  on    their  nortliern  frontier. 

64.  The  Invasion  of  the  Gauls,  387-382   B.  C.     These 
people  came  into  northern  Italy,  perhaps  from  the  valley  of  the 


AN     ANCIKNT     INsriUHKD    STON!-;    LATELY 
I-  O  U  N  D     I N     T II L     1  O  U  U  M 


THE  roXQUEST  OF  ITALY 


47 


Danube,  and  swept  everything  before  them.  They  entered 
Italy  in  387,  drove  back  the  Ligurians,  robbed  the  Umbrians  of 
their  territory  on  the  Adriatic,  and  seized  the  possessions  of  the 
Etruscans  on  the  banks  of  the  Po.  In  3S2  the  Senones,  a  l)raneh 
of  the  Celtic  jK'ople,  having  crossed  the  Ajiennines,  laid  siege  to 
Clusium  in  Etruria.  A  Roman  embassy  at  Clusium,  it  is  said, 
aided  the  ])eoi)le  of  the  town,  and  so  angered  the  Celts  that  they 
advanced  upon  Rome.  The  Roman  army  which  met  them  on 
the  banks  of  the  Allia  a  few  miles  from  Rome  was  annihilated. 
The  city  was  panic-stricken.  Tiie  hre  of  the  Vestals  and  the 
utensils  sacred  to  the  gods  were  cjirried  to  Caere;  some  of  the 
citizens  fled  to  the  neighboring  towns,  and  others  took  refuge  in 
the  citadel.  For  seven  months,  we  are  told,  the  barbarians  laid 
siege  to  tlie  citadel,  but  without  success,  although  one  night,  ac- 
cording to  a  fanciful  popular  tale,  they  had  nearly  succeeded  in 
scaling  the  heights  and  entering  the  fortress  when  its  Roman 
defendants  were  roused  by  the  cackling  of  the  sacred  geese  of 
Juno,  and  the  Capitol  was  save<l. 

65.  Withdrawal  of  the  Gauls  in  382  B.  C.  Wearied  by  the 
long  siege,  or  alarmed  by  the  rej)ort  that  their  possessions  in  the 
North  were  threatened  by  the  VtMieti,  they  accepted  a  ransom  of 
one  thousand  j)ounds  of  gold,  or  about  $225,000,  as  the  i)rice 
of  their  withdrawal  and  returned  to  the  Xorth,  nuiking  no  effort 
to  hold  pernumently  what  they  liad  overrun  in  central  Italy. 
Twice  in  subsecjuent  years  the  raids  of  the  Celts  brought  them 
within  striking  distance  of  Rome,  viz.,  in  'MM)  and  34S.  On  the 
first  occasion  the  Romans  did  not  venture  to  give  them  battle; 
in  :MS,  however,  the  Romans  and  their  allies  met  them  boldly, 
and  the  Celts  retreated  in  disorder. 

66.  Events  Following  the  Gallic  Invasion.  Strange  as  it 
may  seem,  the  invasion  of  tlie  Celts  was  pr()l)al)ly  of  permanent 
advantage  to  Rome.  The  losses  which  Etruria  suffered  at  their 
hands,  following  closely,  as  these  disasters  did,  on  the  fall  of 
Veii,  made  it  easy  for  Rome  to  extend  her  control  over  southern 
Etruria.  Eour  new  tribes  were  established  in  the  territory  of 
Veii,  Capena,  and  Falerii,  and  within   twenty  years  after  the 


Pflplllll^^ 


48 


ROMAX  IIISTOIIY 


THE  rOVQT'EST  OF  ITALY 


49 


withdrawal  of  the  Celts,  Latin  colonies  were  foniided  at  Sutrium 
and  Ncpete  oil  the  l)or(lers  of  the  (iiiiiiiian  forest  in  Etruria. 
About  the  same  tiiEPe  Latin  eoloiiies  were  established  in  Volscian 
territory  at  Satrieum  and  Setia,  and  before  the  middle  of  the 
centiirv  Roman  eitizens  had  been  sent  into  this  seetion  and  two 
new  tribes  organized  there.  The  ra}>id  <]:ro\vth  of  Rome's  power, 
or  the  ehange  whieh  her  attitude  i)robably  underwent  in  conse- 
quence of  it,  stirred  up  wars  with  some  of  her  Latin  allies,  but 
peace  was  restored  in  the  y(\'ir  .'^."iS,  although  probably  the  po- 
sition of  Rome's  allies  was  less  favorable  than  it  had  l>een  before. 

67.  Growth  of  the  Samnites.  Wliile  the  Romans  were 
pushing  their  boundaries  north  into  Etruria  and  south  into  the 
Volscian  territory,  another  peo|)le  of  central  Italy  was  following 
a  career  of  conquest  equally  brilliant  if  less  permanent  in  its 
character.  We  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice  that  the 
Samnites,  issuing  from  their  mountain  fastnesses,  overran  and 
occupied  the  territory  of  rain{)ania  and  Lucania.  In  the  latter 
half  of  the  fourth  century  the  Etruscan  city  of  Capua,  and  the 
Greek  city  of  Cumie  fell  l)eforc  them.  Tlie  facility  with  which 
the  conquerors  accepted  tlie  (ivilization  of  the  conquered  is  in- 
credible. In  their  native  hills  they  had  supported  themselves 
by  rearing  flocks  and  herds,  and  had  lived  the  simple  life  of  the 
mountaineer.  On  the  fertile  plains  of  Campania  they  collect- 
ed in  cities  and  adopted  the  luxurious  mode  of  living  of  their 
Greek  neighbors.  They  seemed  to  retain  little  of  their  past,  ex- 
cept the  Oscan  language  and  the  loose  form  of  government 
which  was  characteristic  of  the  Samnites.  The  tie  of  blood 
which  bound  them  to  their  kinsmen  in  the  hills  was  soon  for- 
gotten, or  at  least  disregarded,  by  the  latter,  who  plundered  and 
pillaged  them  as  they  had  plundered  and  pillaged  the  Greeks 
and  Etruscans  before  them. 

68.  Their  Relations  with  the  Rf>mans.  At  this  point  the 
Romans  enter  the  story.  Harried  by  the  Samnites  of  the  hills, 
the  people  of  Campania,  according  to  tradition,  appealed  to 
Rome  for  aid.  The  Romans  came  to  their  help,  made  an  alliance 
with  them,  declared  war  against  the  Samnites  in  343,  and  after 


a  successful  campaign  of  two  years,  forced  them  to  retire  from 
the  lowlands.  This  is  the  story  of  the  first  Samnite  war,  as  Ro- 
man historians  tell  it.  The  truth  of  the  matter  probably  is  that 
Rome,  instead  of  supporting  the  Campanians  in  resisting  the 
encroachments  of  the  Samnites,  joined  with  Samnium  in  a  peace- 
ful division  of  certain  territ(3ry  belonging  to  their  weaker  neigh- 
bors. 

69.  End  of  the  Latin  League,  338  B.  C.  The  ambitious 
spirit  of  expansion  which  Rome  showed  in  dealing  with  smaller 
states,  supported  as  she  was  now  by  Samnium,  suggests  also  a 
sufficient  explanation  of  the  desperate  struggle  w^hich  the  Latin 
communities  at  once  made  to  break  her  power.  The  explana- 
tion which  has  been  given  above  of  Rome's  policy  in  Campania, 
accounts  for  the  fact  also  that  the  Campanians  allied  themselves 

^  with  the  Latins  against  Rome,  which  they  would  scarcely  have 

done  had  Rome  so  lately  and  so  generously  lent  them  her  aid, 
as  Roman  tradition  says  she  did.  The  war  lasted  for  two  years, 
from  340  to  338.  It  was  l)rought  to  an  end  by  the  battle  of 
Sinuessa,  where  the  Latins  and  their  allies  suffered  a  disastrous 
defeat.  With  this  war  the  Latin  League  came  to  an  end.  Rome 
made  a  separate  treaty  with  each  one  of  the  Latin  communities, 
with  the  express  purpose  of  preventing  confederations  between 
them  in  the  future,  and  they  lost  many  of  the  rights  which  they 
hjid  enjoyed.  The  terms  adoi)ted  varied  from  state  to  state, 
but  almost  all  the  members  of  the  old  league  were  apparently 
restricted  in  their  right  to  trade  with  one  another.  This  con- 
tinued to  be  the  position  of  these  towns  down  to  the  first  century 
B.  c,  when  they  acquired  Roman  citizenship. 

70.  Military  Reforms.  The  long  wars  which  the  Romans 
^^'cre  now  carrying  on  had  led  to  many  improvements  in  the 
equipment  and  organization  of  the  army.  These  reforms  are 
attributed  to  the  dictator  Camillus  who  brought  the  long  siege  of 
Veil  to  a  successful  termination.  In  the  early  days  the  Roman 
soldier  had  been  called  out  for  short  summer  campaigns  only,  and 
gave  his  services  to  the  government  without  charge.  Now  that 
his  term  of  ser\  ice  extended  through  the  year,  and  sometimes 


50 


ROMAN   HISTORY 


through  several  years,  it  hecjiine  iieccssary  for  the  state  to  pay 
him.  The  money  whicli  was  paid  him  made  it  possible  for  any 
Roman,  no  matter  how  [)oor  he  mi<^ht  be,  to  i)rovide  his  own 
equipment,  and  it  also  allowed  a  reorganization  of  the  army  on 
a  new  basis.  Under  the  old  system,  when  the  individual  pro- 
vided his  own  armor,  only  the  rich  men  could  afford  to  buy  a 
full  equipment.  They,  therefore,  were  placed  in  the  front  ranks, 
while  the  light-armed  j)oor  men  fought  in  the  rear.  Now  that 
the  })ayment  of  the  troops  made  it  possible  for  each  soldier  to 
provide  himself  with  the  sort  of  armor  which  he  could  use  to  the 
best  advantage,  length  of  service  was  made  the  basis  of  classifi- 
cation, the  younger  men  being  placed  in  the  front  ranks,  and 
the  veterans  in  the  rear,  each  line  with  its  characteristic  and 
appropriate  weapons.  The  new  system  promoted  the  efficiency 
of  the  army,  because  under  it  each  soklier  performed  the  particu- 
lar ser\  ice  for  wiiieh  his  natural  ability  and  his  (.'xperience  best 
(jualified  him.  The  extension  of  the  term  of  service  led  also  to 
a  better  training  of  the  individual  soldier,  and  to  better  dis- 
ci[)line  in  tlie  army  as  a  whole.  The  cluinge  carries  us  a  long 
way  forward  from  the  old  militia  s\  stem  toward  that  of  a  regular 
army,  and  the  Roman  who  left  liis  home  for  a  long  term  of  ser- 
vice in  Etruria  or  Campania  stands  midway  in  the  line  of  de- 
velijpment  between  the  citizen  of  the  early  days  who,  to  defenil 
his  city  from  attack,  left  his  fields  after  the  sowing  and  returned 
before  tlie  harvest,  and  the  professional  soldier  of  the  late  re- 
public who  gave  his  life  to  the  pursuit  of  arms. 

71.  Second  Samnite  War,  326  -  304  B.C.  The  conclusion 
of  the  war  with  the  Latins  left  the  Romans  free  to  carry  out  their 
ambitious  designs  in  Campanian  and  Volscian  territory.  Sam- 
nium  had  fixed  her  eves  on  the  same  districts,  and  a  conflict 
between  the  two  peoples  broke  out.  No  trustworthy  account 
of  the  earl\  \'ears  of  the  war  has  come  down  to  us.  The  narrative 
is  hopelessly  altered  to  suit  Roman  national  pride,  but  even  the 
patriotic  chronicler  could  not  gloss  over  the  overwhelming  dis- 
aster wliich  the  Roman  caiisr  suffered  at  ilie  Caudine  Forks  in 
321.     Decoyed  into  an  ambush  in  a  narrow  defile  in  the  Apen- 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALY 


51 


nines,  the  entire  armv  was  forced  to  surrender,  and  the  Romans 
were  obliged  to  give  uj)  the  territory  w^iicli  they  had  captured. 
But  in  314  fortune  returned  to  Rome.  The  Samnites  in  Cam- 
pania were  driven  back,  the  cities  whiph  had  rebelled  returned 
to  their  alliance  with  Rome,  and  a  colony  was  established  at 
Interamna  on  the  Liris  to  protect  the  great  military  road  which 
Vv'as  built  down  to  Capua  in  312.  The  following  year  the  Ro- 
mans carried  on  their  military  operations  in  Apulia,  and  with 
success,  but  they  were  recalled  in  310  by  danger  in  a  new  quarter. 
This  time  it  was  the  Etruscans,  who  were  besieging  the  Colony 
of  Sutrium,  but  the  brilliant  campaign  of  the  consul  Quintus 
Fabius  in  Etruria  relieved  Sutrium  and  forced  the  Etruscans  to 
give  up  their  warlike  designs.  For  five  years  more  the  war 
dragged  on,  but  the  Samnites  lost  ground  steadily,  and  in  304 
were  forced  to  sue  for  j)eace. 

72.  Some  Reasons  for  the  Success  of  the  Romans.  In 
numbers,  courage,  and  skill  in  fighting,  the  Romans  and  Sam- 
nites had  been  well  matched.  With  the  Romans,  however,  lay  the 
advantage  which  a  united  i)eople  always  has  in  fighting  a  con- 
federation of  independent  states.  Both  i)eoples  showed  remark- 
able powers  of  endurance,  but  the  Romans  surpassed  their  foes 
in  the  [)ersistence  with  wliich  they  held  what  they  had  accjuired, 
and  in  the  care  and  wisdom  which  they  displayed  in  making 
their  acquisitions  secure  by  building  roads  and  founding  colonies 
in  the  newly  acquired  territory.  The  Romans  showed  more 
diplomatic  skill  also  than  their  opponents,  for  they  succeeded 
in  winning  the  support  or  in  securing  the  neutrality  of  the  people 
of  Apulia  and  Lucania,  as  well  as  of  some  of  the  mountain  tribes 
in  central  Italy.  Perhaps  the  dread  which  the  smaller  states  had 
of  the  Celts  and  Etruscans,  and  the  feeling  which  they  cherished 
that  Rome  could  protect  them  against  the  encroachments  of 
these  peoples  of  the  North  better  than  Samnium  could,  made 
them  incline  to  her  side. 

73.  Some  Results  of  the  War,  The  war  with  Samnium 
served  to  knit  the  Romans  and  Latins  together.  The  bitterness 
which  the  Latins  must  have  felt  after  their  defeat  and  loss  of 


CO 


KOMAN   Hisr'»|;>, 


prestige  in  33S  was  forj^ollcn  in  tlic'  lon^  ^tru<^^K'  in  wliidi  they 
fought  side  hy  siih-  with  tlic  Konuuis,  it>  nicn  <>i"  a  coninion  .^luek, 
and  rci>rescntin<.'  the  civilization  of  the  i)hrni  against  an  aUen 
p€oj)le  of  the  mountains. 

74.  Third  Samnite  War,  298-290  B.  C.  The  peace  with 
the  Sainnites  proved  to  lie  only  a  susi>ension  of  hostihtles,  for 
wlien  tidings  reaehed  them  tliat  the  Cells  were  Jigain  moving 
southward,  tliey  joined  tlie  invaders  against  their  old  enemies 
at  Rome,  but  tlie  allies  were  overwlielmed  at  the  battle  of  Senli- 
num  in  295.  Five  years  later  Samnium  was  forced  to  sue  for 
peace,  and  Roman  interests  in  tlie  .north  were  protected  against 
the  Celts  by  the  founding  of  a  Roman  colony  in  their  country  at 
Sena  Galliea  on  the  Adriatic. 

75.  The  New  Conquests  are  made  Permanent.    The  con- 
quest of  central  Italy  was  now  complete.     On  the  east  side  of  the 
peninsula  from  Sena  Galliea  in  the  territory  of  the  Senones  to  the 
Roman  outposts  at  Veimsia  and  Canusium  in  Apuha,  and  on 
tlie  west  coast  from  Sutrium  to  Cunue,  the  overlordship  of  Rome 
was    recognized.     The    newly   acciuired    territory   was   secured 
l)y  the  establishment  of  strong  fortieses,  and  the  first  step  was 
taken  toward  the  introduction  of  Roman  ideas  and  Roman  in- 
stitutiuas  by  sending  out  Roman  and  Latin  colonists.     In  the 
centurv  which  comes  to  an  end  with  the  battle  of  Sentinum  fif- 
teen or  twenty  colonies  were  estiiblished  l)y  the  home  govern- 
ment.    ::trategic  considerations  determined  their  location,  and 
the  choice  was  made  with  great  wisdom.     Fregellae  and  Inter- 
amna  commanded  tlie  [iassage  of  the  Liris,  and  kept  a  line  of 
communication  o]hmi  to  Cai)ua  along  the  great  higliway  whieli 
Appius  Claudius  coublructed  in  312;  Alba  Fucens  and  Carsioli 
held  the  Aequians  in  subjection,  and  guarded  the  new  military 
road,  later  known  as  tlie  Valerian  road,  w  liich  had  l)een  l)uilt 
through  their  country;  Xarnia  in   southern  Uir»bria  protected 
the  valley  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Flaminian  Road,  and  on  the 
borders  of  th(^  Ciniinian  forest  stood  Sntnum  and  Xciictc,  "the 
gates  (.f  Etruria."     Th«"  establishment  of  sln.iig  military  out- 
posts of  twenty-five  huiulred  and  tw.nty  thousand  colonists  at 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITAT.V 


53 


Luceria  and  Venusia  respectively  brought  the  Romans  within 
the  Greek  si)here  of  influence,  and  is  the  first  step  toward  the 
coiu[nestof  Magna  Gr.ecia. 

76.  Samnium    Encircled    by    Fortresses    and    Roads. 

These  fortresses  and  military  roads  shut  Samnium  in  upon  all 
sides,  and  took  from  her  the  hope  of  joining  her  forces  to  those 
of  any  (ither  people  in  central  Italy.  Rome  was  in  this  respect 
carrying  out  in  military  matters  the  same  policy  of  isolating  her 
rivals  which  she  had  adoi)ted  for  political  reasons  in  deaUng  with 
the  nieml)crs  of  the  Latin  league.  Alba  Fucens  and  Carsioli,  and 
the  Valerian  and  Flaminian  roads,  would  prevent  the  Samnites 
from  again  entering  Etruria  ;  Salicula  and  the  frontier  fortresses 
to  the  south  would  protect  (':!iiii»ania,  and  the  strong  outposts 
in  Apulia  hemmed  Sanininni  in  lo  the  M)nlheast. 

77.  Maritime  Colonies  and  Foreign  Trade.  The  mari- 
time Cf)lonies  which  were  foundeil  during  llie  century  under  con- 
sideration are  of  |H>cnliar  inl(>rest.  The  earliest  of  these  was 
AiUinni,  which  was  established  in  ;WS.  Then  follow  the  colony 
(m  the  island  of  Pontia  in  M^,  MinturiKe  and  Sinucssa  in  29G, 
Ilatria  in  2S9,  Sena  (lallica  and  Castrimi  Novum  in  283.  This 
new  (h'velo})ment  of  the  national  life  i)oints  to  the  existence  of 
a  seagoing  trade,  or  foreshadows  its  (>arly  growth.  A  com- 
mercial trer.ty  which  was  made  with  Carlhage  in  -vhS,  and  re- 
newecl  in  :j()(),  is  also  an  indication  that  foreign  trade;  was  devel- 
oj)ing,  and   that  Roman   interests  were  extending  beyond  the 

limits  of  Italy. 

78.  The  Roman  Fleet.  The  eslal)lishment  of  these  towns 
on  the  coast,  and  the  simnltaiieoiis  apl)ointnient  (311  B.  C.)  for 
the  first  time  of  ntival  officers,  bearing  the  title  of  duoviri  navalcs , 
make  it  reasonably  certain  also  that  within  this  ])eriod  fall  the 
Ix^srinnings  of  an  organized  fleet  of  war  vessels,  and  probably  the 
operations  of  the  Roman  forces  on  land  were  supplemented,  now 
and  then,  by  i)iratieal  enterprises  along  the  coast.  The  establish- 
ment of  garrisons  at  Ilatria,  Sena  Galliea,  and  Castrum  Novum 
on  the  Adriatic,  which  would  furnish  excellent  naval  stations  in 
the  future,  is  especially  significant  in  this  connection. 


54 


ROMW    HISTORY 


79.  The  Lucanians  and  the  Greek  Coast  Towns.    It  was 

the  possession  of  a  fleet  and  the  oi)enin^  of  naval  stations  on  the 
Adriatic,  as  we  siiall  presently  see,  which  first  bronc^ht  the  Uo- 
nians  into  coniiict  witli  the  (i reeks  of  southern  Italy,  and  led  to 
the  conquest  of  that  |)art  of  the  peninsula.  For  many  years  the 
Lucanians,  Bruttians,  and  Apulians  had  heen  encraged  in  inter- 
mittent warfare  with  the  thriving  (ireek  towns  idong  their  coasts. 
Many  of  these  towns  had  fallen  Ijefore  their  attacks,  and  the 
Lucanians  a|>parently  made  it  a  part  of  the  l)argain,  under  which 
they  allied  themselves  with  Home  during  the  Samnite  wars,  that 
they  should  V)e  given  a  free  hand  in  dealing  with  those  which  still 
maintained  their  inde|)endence.  Thurii  and  Tarentum  were 
among  the  coast  cities  wliich  still  hrld  out.  Accordingly,  no 
sooniT  was  the  great  struggle  in  »-cntnd  Italy  at  an  cud  than  the 
Lucanians  and  Bruttians  renewed  llieir  attacks  on  the  (Ireek 
cities  l>y  laying  siege  to  Thurii. 

80.  The  Incident  at  Thurii,  285  -  282  B.C.  The  people  of 
this  town  applied  to  Uome  for  lielp.and  the  Uomaiis,  forgetting 
tlieir  compact  with  the  Lucanians,  or  anxious  to  get  a  foothold 
in  southern  Italy,  forl)a(h'  their  allies  to  carry  out  their  hostile 
designs.  This  was  in  2s.'),  hut  tlie  Romans  were  prevented  from 
enforcing  their  prohibition  at  once  by  the  ui)rising  of  the  Celts 
in  northern  Italv.  The  settlement  of  att'airs  m  that  (piarter  left 
Rome  free  to  take  a  hand  in  matters  in  the  South.  In  2S2  the 
consul  Gains  Fabricius  Luseimis  raised  tlie  siege  of  Thurii,  and 
.  -talilished  a  Hornan  garrison  tlure,  as  well  as  at  (  roton,  Loeri, 
and  Rhegium. 

81.  The  Quarrel  with  Tarentum.  At  this  point  Tarentum 
was  drawn  into  the  (luarrel.  She  must  have  wjitched  with 
hatred  and  jealousy  the  gradual  approach  of  Roman  i)ower  along 
the  coast,  and  when  a  Roman  fleet  of  ten  vessels  on  its  way  from 
the  west  coast  put  into  the  harI>or  of  Tarentum,  the  passion  of 
the  people  burst  into  flame.  The  action  of  the  Roman  admiral 
in  entering  the  port  was  in  violation  of  an  old  treaty  between 
Rome  and  Tarentum  under  whicli  Roman  vessels  were  not  to 
sail  Ijcvond  the  Lacinian  promontorv.     Tlie  people  were  in  their 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALY 


55 


theatre,  overlooking  tlie  harb)r,  when  the  Roman  fleet  appeared. 
In  a  transport  of  fury  they  rushed  to  the  harbor,  put  out  in  their 
galleys,  sunk  or  cai)tured  several  of  the  vessels,  and  sold  or  put 
to  deatli  the  members  of  the  crews.  Then  they  sent  an  expe- 
dition to  Thurii  whicli  expelled  the  Roman  garrison,  and  pun- 
ished her  citizens  for  soliciting  aid  from  Rome. 

82.  Pyrrhus  Aids  Tarentum.  Li  si)ite  of  these  outrages 
the  Romans  adopted  a  very  temperate  course,  but  the  peo])le  of 
Tarentum  were  bent  ui>on  war,  and  sent  for  aid  across  the  Adri- 
atic to  Pyrrhus,  the  king  of  Ei)irus,  whose  long  ex[)erience  in  the 
field  ami  wliose  knowledge  of  the  military  art  made  him  one  of 
the  greatest  leaders  of  his  time. 

83.  His  Ambitious  Designs.  The  aml)ition  and  the  abil- 
ities of  such  a  man  could  not  be  satisfied  in  the  little  kingdom  of 
E[)irus.  Fortunately  f(»r  him,  at  the  very  moment  when  his 
dream  of  building  up  a  great  power  in  Greece  had  been  rudely 
shattered,  cam(^  tlie  call  for  aid  from  Tarentum.  lie  responded, 
not  with  the  expectation  of  merely  driving  back  the  rude  enemies 
of  the  Italian  Greeks,  but  in  the  ho|)e  of  making  himself  master 
of  southern  Italy  and  of  Sicily,  and  of  building  up  an  empire  in 
tlie  West,  as  Alexander  had  done  in  the  East.  Since  Sicily  was 
included  within  the  seoi)e  of  his  plan,  his  aml)itious  designs 
threatened  both  the  great  powers  of  the  West— Carthage  as  well 
as  Rome.  In  fact,  Carthage,  in  view  of  her  Sicilian  holdings, 
was  more  intimately  concerned  than  Rome,  whose  possessions 
in  southern  Italy  were  not  yet  important. 

84.  His  Campaign  against  the  Romans,  280-275  B.C. 
Pyrrhus  landed  in  Italy  in  the  year  280  with  some  twenty  thou- 
sand foot  soldiers  and  three  thousand  cavalrymen.  The  Roman 
legions  could  not  make  a  stand  against  the  Thessalian  cavalry 
and  the  ele|)hants  which  the  king  had  brought  with  him.  They 
were  routed  at  Heraclea  and  in  the  following  year  at  Asculum. 
After  the  battle  of  Asculum  negotiations  were  opened  with 
Pyrrhus.  Cineas,  the  king's  minister,  was  sent  to  Rome  to 
arrange  the  terms  of  the  treaty,  but  the  senate  refused  to  make 
peace  so  long  as  Pyrrhus  was  on  Italian  soil.     Tradition  attrib- 


56 


itrivf  v.\    lii>iulti 


utes  its  refusal  to  the  iiidomitahlr  splril  ami  tlie  chHjurrirc  of 
the  hliiidoM  senator  Aj>i>iiis  ('laudiiis,  who  liad  hiinselt'  carrieci 
to  tlio  ^fMiate-liouse  to  oppose*  the  iH'ixotiations,  Imt  prol)al)ly 
the  appeaiaiiee  in  the  harhor  of  O.^tiaof  a  ( -arlha^niiiaii   fleet 


1/  1  /.■/■ 
1  /</./  I  nci  1/ 


T    y    H   li    ii    /■:    .V    /•    .1/ 


.-Aj^. 


/        S       I        C        I        L 


Tin:    WAR    WITH     PYURHU8 


offeriii^^  aid  h:id  iiKtre  effed  tlian  rvm  |he  speeeh  of  Appius. 
At  all  events  the  Uonians  rejected  the  j)rotlers  of  jieaee.  The 
coniiilete  victory  of  the  Uonians  in  27')  |)roved  tiie  wisdom  of 
their  decision,  and  Pyrrlnis  was  forced  to  wilh(h-aw  from  Italy 
and  give  U|)  forever  his  dreams  of  a  ^Vestern  Empire. 

85.  The  New  Acquisitions  of  Territory.  Tarenlum,  Rhe- 
gium,  and  the  other  Greek  cities  surrendered  one  .ifter  another, 
and  were  made  allies  of  Kome;  lohtnio  ^^vlv  planted  at  I*iestum, 
Beneventum,  and  .Esernia,  and  the  A(h-iatic  coast-line  was 
strengthened  hy  out{)osts  at  Ariminum  and  Firmum;  and,  thanks 
to  the  party  strife  wliich  l)rokc  out  in  \'olsinii  soon  after  tlie  with- 
drawal of  Pyrrlms,  and  to  the  ajipeal  \\  hich  one  f  letion  made  lo 
the  Romans  for  hel[)  against  tts  opponent,  this  stronghold  and 


THE  CON<4UEST  OF  ITALY 


57 


sacred  eenire  (»f  the  I'>lruseau  league  frll  into  tlie  hands  of  the 
Romans,  and  Rome  was  m  w  mistress  of  all  Italy  as  far  north 
as  the  A  runs. 

86.  Relations  of  the  Italian  Communities  to  Rome. 
New  terriloiy  ha<l  heen  ])rought  under  the  control  of  Rome  in  a 
variety  of  ways  -  l»y  the  incorporation  of  lu-w  connnunities  into 
the  stjite,  hy  colonization,  hy  the  annexation  of  coiujuered  lands, 
and  hy  the  formation  of  alliances  in  which  a  certain  degree  of 
sul»ordinalion  l(»  Rome  was  recognized.  In  dealing  with  the 
territory  ac(juire(|  in  these  dilferen I  ways  il  wasa|);irtof  Rouk^'s 
l^olic}'  to  make  diU'ercnccs  in  the  rights  and  privileges  granted 
to  neighl)oring  connnunities,  in  order  that,  not  heing  suhjecl  to 
the  stime  liinitations,  and  s«)  not  having  tlie  same  grievances, 
they  might  not  have  a  connnon  hasis  for  joint  action  agaifist 
her.  In  this  way  she  hope(l  to  |)revent  conspiracies  against 
her  power.  Furthermore,  little  attempt  was  made  to  introduce 
the  Roman  system  into  local  a<lministralive  affairs,  hirt  com- 
nnmities  were  allowed  to  retain  in  large  measure  their  own 
local  executive  ofheers  and  courts.  For  these  reasons  Italian 
communities  in  their  internal  organization  had  little  in  connnon. 

87.  All  Inferior  to  the  Capital.  Notwithstanding  this 
diversity,  all  the  eommunities  outside  of  Rome  luid  one  eonnnon 
characteristic — a  position  inferior  to  that  of  Rome.  Even  the 
inhahitants  of  those  towns  to  wliieh  the  full  right  of  Roman 
citizenshij)  w;is  granted,  were  at  a  disadvantage,  when  eom})ared 
with  people  living  in  the  capital.  To  exercise  their  political 
rights  they  had  to  go  to  Rome,  for  the  Romans  had  no  repre- 
.s(>ntntive  svstem,  and  vet  thev  were  so  far  away  that  it  was  rarelv 
|)ossil)le  for  them  to  go.  They,  as  well  as  the  people  of  other 
Italian  communities  wliich  tlid  not  have  the  full  rights  of  citizen- 
ship, followed  the  leadership  of  Rc^me.  Rome  alone  had  the 
right  to  declare  war  against  foreign  nations,  and  to  make  peace 
with  them,  and  Roman  coins  were  used  throughout  the  pen- 
insula. 

88.  Classes  of  Citizens.  All  the  |)eoples  of  Italy  fell  into 
two  classes,  cives,  or  citizens,  and  socil,  or  allies.     Citizens  were 


58 


ROMAN  HISTORY 


THE  CONQUEST  OF  ITALl 


59 


of  two  sorts,  those  who  had  both  private  and  [)oHtical  rights,  and 
those  who  had  [private  but  lacked  political  rights.  The  latter  were 
called  civc^  sine  suffraglo.  Private  rights  included  the  riglit  to 
hold  and  exchange  property  and  be  protected  in  its  possession, 
the  right  of  appealing  to  the  people  in  case  a  magistrate  imposed 
certain  severe  penalties,  and  the  right  of  contracting  a  marriage 
valid  under  Roman  law.  Those  who  had  both  private  and 
political  rights  had  tlir  privileges  just  mentioned,  and  could  also 
vote  for  magistrates  at  Rome,  and  were  eligible  to  office  in  the 
Capital. 

89.  Additions  to  the  Citizen  Body.  In  the  early  period 
while  Rome  was  struggling  with  states  which  were  her  rivals  in 
point  of  strength  and  size,  she  freely  admitted  certain  commu- 
nities to  the  rights  of  citizenshi[).  In  fact,  she  forced  certain  con- 
(piered  peoples  to  accept  these  rights.  It  has  been  calculated 
that  at  the  close  of  the  war  with  Pyrrhus  the  district  occupied 
by  Roman  citizens  "extended  northward  as  far  as  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Caere,  eastward  to  the  Apennines,  and  southward  as  far 
as,  or  beyond,  Formiie."  Within  these  limits  there  were,  to  be 
sure,  certain  towns  which  did  not  have  these  rights,  and  beyond 
them  were  a  few  cities  to  which  they  had  been  given,  but,  speak- 
ing with  sufficient  exactness,  the  district  indicated  above  is  the 
territory  within  whose  limits  the  inhabitants  enjoyed  the  priv- 
ileges of  Roman  citizens.  Besides  incorporating  communities 
Rome  also  sent  out  colonies  of  Roman  citizens.  Almost  all  of 
these  settlements  were  located  on  the  coast. 

90.  Gives  Sine  Sufifragio.  Communities  with  private  rights 
only  were  subject  to  all  the  burdens  of  state,  such  as  furnishing 
troops  and  paying  taxes  in  time  of  war.  Their  local  governments 
varied  in  independence  according  to  the  privileges  allowed  them 
by  Rome.  Caere  was  forced  to  accept  citizenship  without  polit- 
ical rights  in  351,  and  Capua  and  some  other  towns  were  put  in 
the  same  category  later.  The  total  number  of  citizens,  including 
both  those  who  had  full  rights  and  those  \\  ho  had  private  rights 
only,  has  been  estimated  at  two  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
for  the  period  immediately  after  the  conquest  of  Italy. 


91.  The  Latins  and  Other  Allies.  Of  the  allies,  or  the  socii 
as  the  Romans  called  them,  the  Latins  had  the  most  advan- 
tageous position.  These  were  not  citizens  of  the  Latin  towns 
which  in  early  days  had  made  up  the  Latin  league,  for  the  mem- 
bers of  that  organization  had  either  been  destroyed  or  incor- 
porated directly  into  the  Roman  state,  but  they  were  colonists 
Hving  in  towns  founded  in  newly  acquired  territory  to  whom 
Rome  gave  private  rights,  an  independent  local  government, 
and  the  privilege  of  voting  at  Rome  under  certain  circumstances. 
This  was  the  status  of  almost  all  the  colonies  planted  in  the 
interior.  The  other  allies  had  their  own  courts  and  local  magis- 
trates, as  the  Latins  had,  but  the  citizens  of  these  communities 
could  not  vote  at  Rome.  The  one  duty  wliich  all  the  allies  had  to 
perform  was  to  furnish  Rome  with  their  prescribed  cjuota  of 
troops,  which  was  fixed  from  year  to  year  by  the  senate.  The 
relations  which  tliese  states  bore  to  Rome  were  established  by 
charters  or  treaties. 

92.  Preparations  for  Conquest  beyond  the  Sea.  A  new 
turn  was  given  to  the  develonment  of  the  Roman  state  by  the  con- 
(juest  of  tlie  Greek  coast  towns  in  soutliern  Italy  and  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  maritime  colonies  on  both  the  east  and  the  west 
coasts  of  Italy.  In  the  earlier  period  the  Romans  had  been  so 
absorbed  by  their  struggles  on  the  mainland  that  they  had  been 
able  to  give  little  attention  to  the  development  of  a  navy,  and 
their  maritime  interests  had  suffered  in  consequence.  A  treaty 
with"  Carthage  which  limited  their  right  to  trade  in  the  ^Nlediter- 
ranean,  and  the  treaty  with  Tarentum  which  forbade  their  ships 
to  sail  beyond  the  Lacinian  promontory,  furnish  proof  of  this 
fact.  But  the  control  of  all  the  important  harbors  in  Italy,  and 
the  power  which  the  Romans  now  had  to  call  upon  the  Greek 
towns  for  requisitions  in  ships  gave  promise  of  the  development 
of  a  strong  navy  and  a  merchant  marine,  and  indicated  that 
Rome  would  soon  be  in  a  position  to  gratify  beyond  the  sea  that 
appetite  for  conquest  which  successes  in  Italy  had  developed. 
The  troops  were  now  paid,  and  had  become  accustomed  to  the 
long  periods  of  service  which  wars  in  foreign  lands  require,  and 


■f 


Kl 


ROMAN'   insTnliV 

Roman  commandinj]:  offictrs  liad  acciuired  the  ability  to  conduct 
serious  cain[)ai.i,nis,  and  to  control  laro;e  iKxlies  of  men. 

93.  The  Proconsulship  Established,  327  B.  C.  The  estai)- 
hslnnent  of  the  procoiisulshii),  like  tlie  iMiil.ling  up  of  sea 
j)ova  r  and  the  development  of  a  veteran  army,  helped  also  to 
put  the  Romans  in  a  [)ositi(.n  to  carry  on  forci,i,ni  wars  with  suc- 
cess. The  consul  who  connnanded  the  army,  held  office  for  a 
vcar  onlv,  and  at  the  cud  of  the  vcar  hecame  a  private  citizen 
a<4aiy.  If  a  nation  is  carrvlnt,^  on  a  lon<^  war  at  a  distance  trom 
liome,  it  cannot  im[)eril  its  success  by  a  frc((uent  change  of  com- 
marulino;  officers.  This  the  Romans  felt  in  :\27,  when  tlic  term 
of  oihce  of  the  consul,  I\il)Iilius  Thilo,  their  successful  general, 
came  t(»  an  end  at  a  (a'ifical  moment  in  the  mtoikI  Sammle  Vvar. 
To  meet  the  emcruciu  v  he  was  aulhori/c<l  to  remain  in  charge 
of  Iks  army  i>r<f  fon.siifc,  i  c,  wilh  the  power  of  a  consul,  until  the 
campaign  was  finished.  Tiw  innovalioii  was  a  dangerous  dc- 
virc  from  a  political  point  ol  \''  for  such  an  extcaision  of  tlu* 
term  of  a  generars  command,  n(><  (  ^^ary  as  it  was  in  long  wars  ol 
con<|nest,  eslahlished  a  dan-en. lis  pr(>cedcnl,  and  the  fre([Ucnt 
adi»ption  of  the  device  accustomed  the  Romans  to  the  i»nilricted 
exercise  <if  siipnane  p«)wer  by  an  individual,  and  thus  prepared 
the  way  for  the  enij>irc. 

94.  Summary  Account  of  the  Conquest  of  Italy,  509- 
264  B.  C.  An  c\aminati<.n  (.f  the  hist(»ry  of  the  early  Repub- 
lic shows  us  that  Rome,  aided  hy  the  Latin  League,  carried  on 
a  long  series  of  wars  with  southern  Etrnria,  with  the  Aecjuians, 
Volscians,  Gauls,  and  Samnites,  in  all  of  which,  thanks  to  her 
geographical  position,  her  government,  and  the  character  of  her 
j)eopk',  she  was  in  the  end  victorious.  The  successful  comple- 
tion of  these  wars  made  central  Italy  .subject  to  her,  while  the 
war  witli  Pvrrhus  le*!  to  the  eonquest  of  southern  Italy,  so 
that  at  last  the  whole  l»eiiinsula  was  brou;j:ht  under  her  control. 


i 


ROMAN  TERRITOIiY 
in  509  B.C. 


1 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  264  B.C. 

Roman  Terriu>rj 


< 


-i 


DEVELOPMENT   OF    ROMAN    TE^KITOKY   FROM  509   TO   264    B.  C. 


(Ill 


H<)\1V\   iiisr<.i;v 


Koiiian  coinmamlino:  oi!i(vis  li:i.l  ac.iiiiiv.l  llir  :.l)ililv  lo  (•..ii<hi<t 
serious  r:!ni|>:ii,Liiis,  i[\u\  to  control  lai-;^t'  JM)(lir>  ol  iirmk 

93.  The  Proconsulship  Established,  327  B.  C.  The  ('st;i:>- 
lislmiciit  of  the  i>rocoii.Mi!>!ii|>,  Hk-  l!i''  ''-iiMiii.u-  "p  of  >.'a 
iM.vvcr  and  lln-  (lc\v!<.|.iii('nt  of  a  wt.raii  aiiny,  h('llH'<l  a!^"  l<» 
imt  the  l{oiiia:i>  in  a  position  («>  rariT  on  foivi  irs  with  -ai<- 
(*t -^.  '!'!i('  consul  wlio  coinni.-nidcd  llic  army,  luM  ollicc  l(*r  a 
Year  .ai!. .  and  at  the  (Mid  of  die  ve-ir  l)ccani»-  :;  private  citizen 

*  '  '  • 

:i4:iiu.      If  lion  i>  can-viu',:' on    '  lotrr  t  a  distance  troiu 

home,  it  eaniK.t  imperii  il.  n<ccv-.  1,     ,  fre^imail  ehjui^iv  <»f  com~ 

matuhn^-  officer^.  11iis  the  l{(.man>  iVh  in  :;27,  v  iicn  the  ti-rm 
of  (.(lice  of  the  c.n^nh  Pulihlin.  Thilo,  ihcir  sik cessfiil  ^vnerah 
came  to  an  end  a!  a  (  ritica!  monu  nt  in  th-  ■  <  ond  >ainmle  ^  ar. 
To  ine<-t  the  (anein'encv  he  nihori/.(  d  io  naiiain  in  char,'.-:e 

of  h:sarm\   nf>>  cm  widi  diepo\(  rof  a  c(.n-ai!,  until  tin- 

cam|»aiiin   wa^  hnidied.      The   innov  alioii  v  dan;;'erons  de- 

vi.-e  I'nan  a  pohtiia!  point  ol  ■  •■  f'  ••  'I'h  an  cvlension  of  the 
lerm  of  a  o-.-ma-nr-  <-omniainl,  t  '-  il  \v;i  -  in  lon<j;  v^ar>ol 

confjne-,1,  cstahiished  a  d  a  n  p  a'o  i  h  pieced(  nl,  and  the  fre(pienl 
:Ml..pl!on  of  die  di  m  rns|oin<d  die  !•<.  to  the  protracted 

c\i  rci~.,r  of  supreme  power  1)\'  an  iiidiv  idii  d,  and  thus  pi'cjiareil 
the  way  for  the  rni]>ife. 

94.  Summary  Account   of  the  Conquest  of   Italy,  509- 

264  B.  C.  An  cxaininalion  of  the  history  of  the  c  riy  Hcpul)- 
hc  shows  us  that  Rome,  aide<l  !)y  the  Latin  Lca.iaie,  carried  on 
;i  !,,nn"  series  of  wars  with  ^onlliraai  Lli'iiria,  with  the  Ae<|uians, 
\oLs(ians,  (.ani.,aiid  Sanmor  ..  in  all  of  w  liieli,  thank--  'o  her 
iCeoi^n-apliieal  position,  h«a*  ;iov(aaim(ait,  and  t!ie  chanict(a- ol  lua- 
people,  sh'  in  the  end  victor-ion..     The  successful  comple- 

lion  of  these  wars  made  centra!  ll  "'y  snl>j(M-l  to  Ikm',  whi!(  the 
war  with  Tx  rrlnw  led  t^.  the  cn'irjncl  of  sontluaai  Italy,  x* 
that  at  last  ihu  who:    jninnxih    ■>  is  hroii^ht  un<lia-  hercnnlrol. 


ROMAN   TERRITOi;Y 
iu  509  B.C. 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
iu  264  B.C. 


< 


Dl  VKI  .JlMl   NT    «)i     KuMW    TK.:UITOJiY    tK<>\i    50!>   To    Jt'tl    u.  c. 


t 


CM Al'TKR  V 

TllF.    srcCKSSFTL   STIllCICiLES    Ol       rilE     I'LEBLIANS 

(5()1)-2()1    H.  ('.) 

How  the  plebeians  won  their  ricclits  -How  the  nol.ility  rose  Into  power- 
Mow  an  advance  in  civilisation  foliowcd  tlio  conquest  of  tSoutliurn  Italy. 

96.  The  Consul.  The  most  important  result  of  the  revoki- 
tion  of  509  consisted  in  tlie  changes  which  the  chief  magistracy 
underwent.  In  j)lace  of  a  single  magistrate,  the  king,  who  was 
selected  hy  the  senate,  and  held  office  for  life,  two  chief  executives, 
called  consuls,  were  chosen  each  year  by  the  whole  body  of  citi- 
zens. The  new  system  diifered  in  three  essential  points  from 
the  old  one.  It  involved  a  cliange  in  die  number  of  magistrates, 
in  their  term  of  office,  and  in  the  method  of  choice.  The  change 
in  the  method  of  choice  was  of  small  importance  at  first,  since 
the  popular  assembly,  in  which  the  consul  was  chosen^  was  con- 
trolled by  the  |)atncians,  just  as  was  the  senate  which  had  chosen 
the  king.  But  the  other  t w<  >  points  of  difference  were  far-reaching. 
A  chief  executive  who  holds  office  for  a  limited  i)eriod  only, 
as  the  consul  did,  can  l)e  held  accountal)le  for  his  conduct  at  the 
close  of  his  term  of  office.  This,  of  course,  had  been  impossible 
in  the  case  of  the  king.  Furthermore,  there  were  two  execu- 
tive officers  henceforth,  and  to  each  of  them  was  given  the 
right  to  |)revent  his  colleague  from  taknig  any  action  of  which  he 
disap})r()ved;  and  this  veto  power,  as  the  Romans  called  it,  would 
naturally  prevent  a  magistrate  from  becoming  tyrannical.  It 
is  surprising  that  this  dual  system  of  government  was  workable. 
The  ]K)liticaI  theorist  would  have  been  justified  in  saying  that 
a  scheme  under  which  one  magistrate  could  l)lock  the  action  of 
the  otlier  and  stop  the  wheels  of  government  at  will  could  n(^vcr 
last.     That  it  did  serve  the  purposes  of  the  Romans  admirably 

for  centuries  is  one  of  the  many  proofs  which  history  offers  of 

61 


62 


ROMW   HISTORY 


the  eminently  practieal  character  of  the  Romans  and  their  skill 
in  avoiding  difficulties.  Tlie  consuls — and  a  similar  statcmeni 
may  be  made  of  colleagues  in  the  other  official  boards  established 
later — avoided  conflict^  bv  alternating  in  the  active  exercise  of 
tlieir  autliority  or  by  a^Mgning  specific  duties  on  the  basis  of 
seniority  or  by  lot.  Tlius,  for  instance,  one  consul  took  prece- 
dence o\  er  his  colleague  in  the  first  month,  and  then  relinquished 
his  priority  during  the  second  month,  or  one  consul  commanded 
the  army  one  day  and  liis  colleague  the  next  day. 

96.  The  Dictator.  Now  and  then,  however,  in  moments  of 
peril  the  Romans  found  it  desirable  to  place  the  fortunes  of  the 
state  in  the  hands  of  a  single  magistrate,  unhampered  by  a  col- 
league. Not  long  after  the  establishment  of  the  consulshi[)  such 
an  emergeui  y  aro^e,  the  consuls  chose  a  dictator  to  meet  it,  and 
subordinated  themselves  to  him  until  the  danger  was  passed. 
At  intervals  during   the  first   three  centuries  of  rej)ublican  rule, 

esjieeially  when  the  consuls 
seemed  unable  to  cope  with  wars 
abroad  or  insurrections  at  liomc, 
such  an  ofHcial  was  appointed,  and 
all  the  powers  of  the  state  were  placed 
in  his  hands. 

97.  The  Consul's  Insignia  and 
Attendants.  The  consul  inherited 
all  the  powers  of  the  king  except 
the  king's  religious  functions,  which 
were  delegated  to  priests.  His  dig-  , 
nity  was  indicated  to  the  eye  by  the 
purple-bordered  toga  praetexta, 
Avhich  he  wore  in  the  city,  by  a  short 

(>-. —        -..■■■. .'  ^^^r-^rr^^r^^  v^d    cloak,    which    he    used    when 
-:.  -r,  •>4v=*'^;'::':*«'^;;XVi;'V^;'''iA  abroad,   and    bv     the    curule    chair 

M.>NUMEN-T     SHOWINO    CURULE        "P^^"    ^^'"^^^''^    ^^^'     '^'^^     ^^'^     lomial     OCCa- 

sions. 


l.":%--M;i!fi:r'---UvV'T 

'        —  '  * 


i»>i»        -»;A*'     -J-       »mnmwmr\         ...» 

fK''.lllll--       '       tf  ..itlpll. lilj 

/  ■.■■  -1..;    -  •■        Jiiii.iiMi..      I.     ..,w'..,>.iwir 


CHAIH     AM>      FASCES 


93.  The  Centuriate  Organization.    We  have  already  had 
occasion  to  notice  tluy^the  new  chief  magistrate  was  ciiosen  not 


"^ 


THE  srrrKSSFUL  STRUGGLES  OF  THE  PLEBEIANS 


63 


by  the  senate  but  by  the  people.  His  most  important  duty 
would  consist  in  leading  the  array,  and  it  was  very  natural  that 
he  should  be  chosen  by  the  fighting  men  of  the  community  as- 
sembled in  centuries.  The  organization  became,  therefore,  in 
the  matter  of  choosing  the  consul,  a  political  body.  It  is  known 
in  history  as  the  centuriate  comitia.  The  fact  that,  from  this 
time  on,  appeals  in  a  case  of  life  and  death  were  referred  to  it 
contributed  also  to  its  importance.  This  assembly  was  con- 
trolled by  the  rich,  because  they  made  up  a  majority  of  the  centu- 
ries, and,  since  most  of  the  rich  landholders  were  probably 
patricians,  the  body  had  a  pronounced  aristocratic  character  also. 

99.  The  Plebeians  Oppressed.  The  king  had  held  his 
position  for  life.  Class  prejudice,  therefore,  would  not  count  for 
nnich  in  his  case,  but  the  consul,  who  was  chosen  from  the  ranks 
of  the  patricians,  held  office  for  a  year  only,  and  then  returned 
to  their  number.  Consequently  his  action  must  have  been  large- 
ly influenced  by  prejudice  in  favor  of  the  patricians.  We  are 
not  surprised,  therefore,  that  the  plebeians  found  their  position 
intolerable  under  the  new  chief  magistrates. 

100.  The  Tribunate  Established,  493  B.C.  The  condition 
of  foreign  affairs,  however,  helped  them  to  wrest  from  the  aristoc- 
lacy  some  protection  against  the  patrician  consuls.  In  494, 
when  Rome  was  engaged  in  a  fierce  struggle  with  the  Aequians 
and  Volscians,  the  plebeian  soldiers  refused  to  march  against 
the  enemy,  and,  taking  up  their  position  on  a  hill  a  few  miles 
from  the  city,  returned  only  on  condition  that  they  should  be 
allowed  to  elect  five,  or  possibly  two,  annual  officials,  called 
tribunes,  with  power  to  protect  them  against  the  tyrannical 
action  of  the  consuls.  In  a  few  years  the  number  was  increased 
to  ten.  Provision  was  also  made  for  the  election  of  two  new 
plebeian  officials,  known  as  aediles,  to  assist  the  tribunes  in  the 
performance  of  their  duties. 

101.  Meaning  and  Importance  of  the  Office.  This  solu- 
tion of  the  question  at  issue  between  the  patricians  and  plebeians 
seems  a  strange  one.  Instead  of  protecting  the  plebeians  by 
laws  which  limited  the  power  of  the  patrician  magistrates,  the 


64 


HOMAX  HISTORY 


pIflHiaiis  an*  ^/ivvm  ollicials  of  their  own  who  can  step  hi  and  pre- 
vent a  ma^nslratf  from  arrestiii;:-  or  puiii.shin<^'  a  citizen  or  from 
taking  any  action  a*(ainst  him  of  which  the  i)lebciau  oihcial 
<lisapj)ro\e.s.  If  the  magistrate  persists  in  his  course,  he  can  he 
punished,  even  with  death,  wliile  the  person  of  the  tribune  is 
inviohible.  lUit  the  tribune  not  only  protected  tlie  individual 
j)lebeian,  he  also  became  a  leader  of  all  the  [)lel)eians  in  the  great 
struggle  with  the  patricians  for  i)olitical  ecpiality  wliieli  begins 
witli  the  establishment  of  the  tribunate. 

102.  Three  Great  Questions.  For  a  period  of  fifty  years 
this  struggle  centres  successively  about  three  |)oints.  These  three 
j>oints  were:  the  improvement  of  the  |)lebeian  organization,  the 
more  e<[uitable  division  of  the  public  land,  and  the  ^-<'tting  down 
in  a  written  form  of  the  customary  law. 

103.  The  Concilium  Plebis.  The  first  object  was  accom- 
plished witliout  serious  difiiculty.  At  tlie  outset  tlie  tribunes 
and  their  assistants,  the  aediles,  had  been  chosen  in  a  [)lebeian 
assembly  made  uj)  of  ctirlur,  Inii  in  471  the  plel)eian  assembly 
was  organized  l)y  tribes,  and  all  the  plebeian  landov.ncrs  were 
eiu'olled  in  it.     Tliis  body  was  known  as  the   coticiliiim  plrbl.s. 

104.  The  Land  Question.  A  reform  in  the  method  of 
partitioning  tlu>  public  land  was  not  brought  about  so  easily  as 
this  political  eliange  had  been.  State  lam!  was  made  up  of  tlie 
pasture-ground  which  lia<l  never  been  assigned  to  individual 
owners,  and  of  the  territory  which  was  seized  in  time  of  war. 
Newly  acquired  territory  was  divided  into  allotments  and  given 
outright  to  poor  citizens,  or  it  was  leased,  or  it  was  held  as  com- 
mon I'asture-ground.  Now  the  middle  and  lower  classes  coin- 
I)lained  that  the  ricli  and  influential  patricians  got  land  at  a 
nominal  rental,  secured  control  of  the  best  and  most  accessible 
property,  and  |)astured  too  large  a  numb(T  of  sheep  and  cattle 
on  the  pulilic  <lomain.  Here  again  tlie  position  of  tlie  plebeians 
was  worse  under  the  republic  than  it  had  l)een  under  the  nion- 
arcliy,  because  under  tlie  latter  the  king  controlled  tlie  ])ublic 
land,  while  now  the  |)atrician  senate  and  consuls  disposed  of  it. 
An  unfair  division  of  the  state  land  afTer-ted  ix.t  only  the  pockets 


THE   SUCCESSFUL   STRUGGLES   OF  THE   PLEBEIANS 


65 


of  the  plebeians  but  their  political  standing  also.  Members-hip 
in  the  classes  on  which  the  centuriate  organization  was  based, 
depended  on  the  ownership  of  land.  Now^,  if  no  new  land  was 
thrown  open  to  the  plebeians,  as  they  increased  in  number  from 
generation  to  generation,  the  average  lioldings  of  each  of  them 
would  decrease,  and  j)lel)eians  would  drop  into  lower  classes, 
or  become  landless.  This  state  of  things  led  to  the  agitation 
which  begins  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century  before  Christ, 
and  continues  down  to  the  end  of  the  republic. 

105.  The  People  had  no  Written  Law.  Justice  was  still 
a(hninistered  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  fathers  which 
was  handed  down  by  word  t)f  mouth,  and  known  to  the  patri- 
cians only.  The  plebeian  neither  knew  what  his  rights  w^cre, 
nor  did  he  know  whether  or  not  he  secured  justice  under  the  law 
from  the  patrician  magistrate  who  heard  his  case.  This  w^rong 
could  be  righted  only  by  codifying  and  publishing  the  law  of  the 
land  so  that  every  citizen  might  know  what  his  lights  were  and 
how  to  secure  them. 

106.  The  Decemvirs,  451-449  B.C.  The  first  proposi- 
tion looking  to  this  end  is  saitl  to  have  been  made  by  the  trilume 
('.  Terentirms  Ilarsa  in  4(>2,  an<l  in  451  a  compromise  wis  ar- 
ranged between  the  two  parties,  to  the  elfect  that  the  consuls  and 
tribunes  should  both  give  place  to  a  commission  of  ten  men,  who 
should  not  only  act  as  chief  magistrates,  but  should  be  em- 
pow(M-ed  to  publish  a  code  of  laws  binding  on  the  whole  com- 
mnnitv.  The  commission  of  ihe  lirst  year  drew  u|>  ten  tables  of 
laws,  l)Ut  left  their  task  unfinished  at  the  end  of  their  term  of 
office. 

107.  The  Commission  of  the  Second  Year.  To  complete 
their  work  a  new  l)oar<l  of  ten  men  was  selected.  Exactly  what 
ha}>|)cned  in  the  second  year  canjiot  be  made  out,  but  probably 
the  new^  commission,  whicli  was  partly  composed  of  plebeians, 
and  was  largely  influenced  in  its  action  by  Apj)ius  Claudius, 
a  man  of  great  ability  and  far-sightedness,  tried  to  incorporate 
in  tlu^  tables  certain  changes  which  the  ])atrieians  wouhl  not 
acccj)!,  and  was  dri\cn  on  I  of  of  lice  by  them. 


66 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


THE    Sr( CESSFUL   STRUGGLES   OF    THE   PLEBEIANS 


67 


108.  Secession  of  the  Plebeians,  449  B.C.  The  plebeians 
were  naturiilly  angry  at  this  unfair  action  on  the  j>art  of  the 
|)atricians,  and  besides  they  were  probably  left  without  adequate 
protection,  since  the  tribunate  had  been  suspended  or  abolished 
when  the  decemvirs  were  chosen.  Accordingly  they  withdrew 
a  second  time  to  tlie  Sacred  Mount,  as  the  hill  was  called  wliitlier 
they  had  seceded  just  before  the  tril>uiiatc  was  established,  and 
exacted,  as  the  j)rice  of  their  return,  an  ackiiowledtjment  of  the 
validity  of  the  last  two  tables,  the  rest(»ration  of  the  tribunate, 
and  a  })romise  of  further  concessions. 


109.  Character  of  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables.     L 


iv^ 


characterizes  the  twelve  tables  which  the  decemvirs  preparetl  as 
"the  source  of  all  public  and  private  law."  Strangely  enough, 
to  our  way  of  thinking,  although  tluy  were  the  outcome  of  this 
long  struggle  between  the  two  orders,  they  do  not  form  in  aiiv 
sense  a  great  document,  like  our  .Vnglo-Saxon  "Hill  of  Rights," 
in  which  fundamental  principles  of  justice  were  set  down,  but 
they  contained  simply  inetliods  of  procedure  in  bringing  a  legal 
action,  and  a  s|)eciiication  of  otl'enses  against  the  law,  witli  their 
penalties.  The  primary  importance  of  the  incident  lies  in  the 
fact  that  henceforth  the  bofly  of  the  law  was  known  to  all  and  was 
the  same  for  all.  Although  these  laws  wen-  not  of  great  con- 
stitutional importance,  and  do  not  in  this  res|)ect  justify  I. ivy's 
characterization  of  them,  tluy  form  the  earliest  Roman  co<le,  the 
progenitor,  so  to  speak,  of  that  body  of  law  which  is  perhaps  the 
most  valuable  legacy  left  us  by  Rome. 

110.  Indicative  of  the  Roman  Character.  The  fragments 
of  the  twelve  tallies  which  have  come  down  to  us,  un|)olished 
and  awkward  as  thev  nndoul)tedlv  are,  in  their  directness,  sim- 
plicity,  and  practical  Ix'aring  are  characteristic  of  the  genius  of 
the  early  Romans.  They  stand  at  the  beginning  also  of  l{oman 
literature,  before  it  came  under  the  controlling  influence  of  the 
Greeks,  for,  although  the  siarx  mav  be  trui'  that  an  embassv  was 
sent  loGreece  to  examine (Jreek  laws  before  the  Roman  code  was 
drawn  up,  tlie  spirit  and  form  of  the  twelve  tables  are  without 
doubt  purely  RomaiL 


1 ' 


111.  Their  Influence  upon  the  Romans.  7'heir  influence 
upon  Roman  life  and  character  must  have  been  very  great.  For 
full  three  centuries  and  a  half  after  their  enactment,  as  we  can 
infer  from  a  statement  made  by  C'icero,  boys  were  obliged  to 
learn  them  by  heart.  In  fact,  they  |)robably  formed  the  first 
schoolbook  used  by  Roman  children  in  learning  to  read  and 
write,  and  the  (juotations  from  them  which  appear  in  the  come- 
dies of  Plautus  show  that  these  laws  must  have  been  familiar 
to  the  average  i)laygoer. 

112.  The  Valerio-Horatian  Laws  of  449  B.  C.  The  con- 
suls Valerius  and  Horatius,  who  had  represented  the  patricians 
in  their  negotiations  with  the  plebeians,  carried  out  faithfully 
the  promises  made  by  the  patricians.  In  449  they  secured  the 
passage  of  laws  establishing  the  tribunate  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
guaranteeing  to  citizens  the  right  of  a|)pealing  to  the  centuriate 
assembly  when  they  had  been  condemned  to  death  by  a  magis- 
trate. A  still  more  important  piece  of  legislation  made  enact- 
ments of  the  plebeian  tril)al  assembly  valid  when  they  had  re- 
ceived in  advance  the  a|)proval  of  the  patrician  members  of  the 
senate.  This  law  changed  essentially  the  cliaracter  of  the 
|>lebeian  assembly  and  of  the  tril)unate.  Uj)  to  this  time  the 
assembly  of  the  plcbs  had  done  nothing  more  than  to  elect  trib- 
unes, and  perhaj)s  to  meet  for  the  discussion  of  matters  of 
interest  to  the  connnon  j)eople.  Henceforth,  under  the  limi- 
tiilion  mentioned  above,  it  was  a  law-making  body,  and  the  trib- 
une, its  presiding  officer,  had  the  right  to  introduce  measures, 
and  l)ecame,  therefore,  an  effective  leader  of  the  plebeians  in 
their  efforts  to  secure  their  rights. 

113.  Why  the  Plebeians  Succeeded.  The  great  constitu- 
tional gains  which  the  j)lebeians  made  during  these  first  fifty 
\ears  of  the  republic  bear  a  close  relation  to  the  fact  that 
Rome  was  harassed  throughout  this  i)eriod  by  the  fierce  raids 
of  the  Etruscans,  the  Aecpiians,  and  the  Volscians.  The  patri- 
cian state  needed  the  support  of  the  plebeians,  and  that  could 
be  had  only  in  return  for  certain  |)o]itical  concessions. 

114.  The  Comitia  Tributa  Established,  447  B.C.    The 


68 


itoM  w   msi'oin- 


trilial  Hssemhly  ;»f  vvliicli  uc  ii;iv(  jiisl  Immii  s|H'akin,i^  was  inadf 
U|)  of  picluians  <.ply,  l>nt  Irom  slalcmciils  iiiadr  hy  Cicero  and 
livy  it  sccins  rcasonaMy  ccrlaiii  tlial  in  tins  jK-riod  a  tribal  as- 
senihlv  iucludiiiii:  l)oth  patririaiis  and  pk-lMians,  and  known  as 
1\k)  c(miift(t  frihiild,  was  cstaMislieil.  By  this  assembly,  wliicli 
|)robal>ly  dates  1  nnn  tin-  year  I  17,  the  (|Uaestors,  who  had  formerly 
IxTn  a[>|K)inted  by  the  kin^'  or  eonsnl,  were  henceforth  elected. 
In  this  body  one  man's  vole  eonnle*!  for  as  mneh  as  another's. 
It  was,  tlierefore,  a  mneh  more  democratic  organization  than  the 
centunate  comitia.  For  this  reason,  and  on  the  score  of  con- 
venience, because  it  met  in  the  centre  of  the  city,  while  the 
centuriate  comitia  held  its  meetin;rs  in  the  ('[impns  Martins, 
it  ac(iuired  in  time  }.^rcat  impoitancc  as  a  le^'islative  body,  and 
ultimately  in  lar;;;*-  measnre  sn|>|>lanted  its  rival  in  making  laws. 

115.  The  Canuleian  Law  of  445  B.  C.  A  i^reat  soci  d 
change  with  important  j)olilieal  results  was  elfectcd  in  415  by  ih;' 
jKissaj^e  of  the  Camilcian  law  which  removed  all  leral  hin<lranees 
to  the  intermarria|;e  of  patricians  ami  [)lcbeians.  'i'his  enact- 
ment aided  the  |>lel)cian  cause  and  helped  to  unite  the  patriei:in> 
and  plebeians  into  a  harmonious  community. 

116.  The  Plebeians  Aspire  to  the  Consulship.  The 
great  majority  of  the  measiu'es  wlio.se  passaj^e  the  plebeians  hal 
secured  since  ')()'.»  had  for  their  avowed  object  the  |)rotectiou  of 
the  plebeians  against  tlic  class  prejudice  of  the  patrician  consul 
an<I  against  unfair  treatment  at  liis  hands.  Hitherto  the  com- 
iiion  peo[)le  had  tried  to  accomplish  their  object  by  indirect 
methods.  Nov.-  they  felt  themselves  in  a  position  to  make  a 
direct  assault  on  the  patrician  strouglujld  by  demanding  a  re))re- 
sentative  in  the  consulslii[>.  The  patricians  had  always  claimed 
the  exclusive  right  to  this  ofiice,  and  made  good  their  claim  to  it. 

117.  The  Military  Tribunate,  445  -  367  B.  C.  They  op- 
posed vigorously,  therefore,  the  proposal  which  the  tribune 
Canuleius  submitted  in  4  lo,  that  the  j)lebeians  should  be  repre- 
sented in  the  c(msulship,  but  in  the  following  year  tliey  granted 
a  compromise  by  providing  that  each  year  the  senate  should 
decide  whether  the  chief  magistrates  were  [o  be  consuls  or  niili- 


THE    SUCCESSFUL   STIH  (JCJLES   <>F   Tm-:    IMJ-.HI:!  A\S 


()9 


tary  tribunes  with  consular  powtMs.  11ie  military  tribunate  was 
open  to  i)lebeians  as  well  as  to  patricians,  so  that  by  this  con- 
cession the  demands  of  the  j)lel)cians  were  nominally  recognized. 
It  was  a  nominal  and  not  a  real  concession,  however,  because  th<^ 
patricians  managed  to  i)revent  plel>eians  from  being  elected  to 

the  ollice. 

118.  The   Censorship    Established,  443  B.C.     In  their 
anxiety  to  conccd«*  as  little  as   possible   to   the  plebeians,   the 
l)atricians,  when  they  allowed  the  sul)stitution  of  the  consular 
tribunate  for  the  consulship,  detached  certain  functions  from 
the  office  of  the  chief  magistrate,  and  assigned  them  to  the  in- 
cuml)ents  of  a  new  magistracy.     At  least  this  seems  to  be  the 
natural  exi)lanation  of  the  establishment  in  448  (or  possibly  in 
435)    of  the  censorshi|),  t(»  which  only  patricians  were  eligible. 
The  new  office  was  really  needed  in  carrying  on  public  business 
in  the  city,  b(H-ause  the  consuls  were  absent  so  nuich  of  the  tune 
i„  conducting  military  cam|)aigns  that  they  could  not  jM-opcrly 
attend  to  their  civil  duties,  which  were  rapidly  increasing  with 
the  growth  of  the  city.     The  censor's  duties  consisted  in  as- 
sessing the  property  of  citizens,  and  arranging  them  in  tribes, 
classes,  and  centuries,  and  in  managing  the  finances  of  the  state. 
Lnter,  as  we  shall  see,  tlu^  duty  of  revising  the  lists  of  senators 
an<l  knights  was  entrusted  to  him.   This  meant,  for  instance,  that 
he  supervisee!  the  collection  of  the  taxes  and  the  cxpcncUture  of 
public  money,  and  determined  the  class  and  the  century  In  which 
a  citizen  should  vote,  and  we  can  readily  ai)preciate  how  im- 
fx.rtant   his   ofiice   was.     The   censors,    two   in    number,   were 
elected  every  five  years,  and  held  office   for  a  year  and  a  half. 
New  business  which  came  u|)  during  the  remaining  three  and  a 
half  years  of  the  five  year  period  was  performed  l)y  the  consul. 

119.  Quaestorship  opened  to  Plebeians,  421  B.C.  Al- 
though they  failed  to  get  all  that  they  liad  hoj^ed  to  get  from  the 
consular  tribunate,  the  plebeians  won  an  advantage  in  421  in 
gaining  admissicm  to  the  (piaestorship,  the  first  i)ermancnt  magis- 
tracy thrown  open  to  them.  About  the  same  time  the  mnnber  of 
(juaestors  was  increased  from  two  to  four. 


70 


ROMAN    ni«^TORY 


120.  The  Distress  of  the  Poor.  The  bitterness  of  the  polit- 
ical stru*ijgle.s  between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians  was  ag- 
j^ravated  by  the  develoj)nient  of  the  hind  rpiestion.  We  have 
noticed  elsewlicre  the  nnfair  division  of  hind,  and  the  economic 
and  poHtical  hardships  which  the  plebeians  suffered  from  it. 
The  lon^  series  of  wars  with  the  Gauls,  the  Aequians,  the 
Volscians,  and  the  |)eople  of  Vcii  made  the  situation  worse  by 
keeping  them  under  arms  and  leaving  their  farms  without  tillage. 

121.  The  Licinian  Laws  of  367  B.  C.  This  was  the 
condition  of  the  [)lebs  which  the  two  tribunes  of  the  year  377, 
(jaius  Licinius  Stolo  and  Lucius  Sextius,  endeavored  to  relieve. 
The  fiercest  |»;i--ions  were  aroused  in  the  struggle  which  followed, 
and  tlie  patrician^  lought  vigorously  to  retain  their  privileges,  but 
in  .3()7  the  two  |)!('hcian  leaders  secured  the  passage  of  a  law  cover- 
ing tlic  various  matters  in  dis})ute  Tlie  contents  of  this  law  are 
somewhat  in  doubt,  l)Ut,  if  we  may  follow  Livy  and  Appian,  it 
included  the  followii^tr  points: 

(1)  Abandonment  of  the  military  tribunate  and  the 
restoration  of  the  earlier  system  of  government  underr  which 
consuls  were  elected  every  year,  with  the  j)rovision  that  one  of  the 
two  consuls  should  always  be  a  |)lel)eian; 

(2)  A  j)rovisi()n  forl>idding  an  individual  to  occupy 
more  than  five  hundred  iufjird  of  arable  land  belonging  to  the 
state,  and  to  pasture  more  than  one  Inmdrcd  head  of  cattle  and 
five  lnuidre<I  shecj)  on  the  common  pasture-land; 

(3)  An  article  fixing  the  proportional  munber  of  free 
laborers  and  slaves  to  be  emploved  on  anv  estate; 

(4)  A  clause  providing  that  interest  already  paid  on 
a  tlebt  sliould  l)e  deducted  fn.Jii  the  principal,  and  that  three 
vears  should  be  allowed  for  tlie  i)avment  of  the  rest  of  the  debt; 

(.'))  A  provision  tliat  the  numljcr  (tf  |)riests  in  charge  of 
the  Sibylline  books  should  l>e  increased  to  ten,  and  that  five  of 
them  shouM  be  j)lebeians. 

122.  Admission    of  the  Plebeians    to   the   Consulship. 

Tlie  first  article  in  these  laws  which  gave  the  plebeians  a  eonsul 
marks  the  beginning  of  tlie  end  of  the  struggle  between  them 


•r'r'" 


THE   SUCCESSFUL   STRUGGLES  OF  THE   PLEBELVNS  71 

and  the  patricians.  When  the  plebeians  carried  this  stronghold 
of  patrician  exclusiveness,  the  other  positions  of  patrician  priv- 
ilege could  not  hope  to  hold  out  long.  That  this  victory  was 
not  a  nominal  one,  as  had  been  in  some  degree  the  plebeian 
success  in  the  case  of  the  consular  tribunate,  is  shown  by  the  fact 
that  in  the  year  following  the  passage  of  these  laws  one  of  the 
plebeians  who  proposed  them,   Lucius  Sextius,   was  elected  to 

the  consulship. 

123.  Other  Articles  of  the  Law.  Tlie  second  law  was  a  gen- 
eral measure  applicable  to  any  time  and  to  any  place,  whereas  the 
agrarian  bills  which  had  preceded  and  which  followed  itapi)licd 
to  a  i>articular  district,  and  ceased  to  be  of  effect  when  the  allot- 
ment in  that  territory  had  been  made.  If  the  third  provision, 
which  the  Greek  historian  Ai)pian  tells  us  was  a  part  of  these 
laws,  really  belongs  to  this  period,  its  appearance  sliows  us  that 
even  at  this  early  date  free  lal)orcrs  were  beginning  to  suffer  from 
comi)etition  with  the  slaves,  who  we  know  were  captured  and 
brought  into  Italy  in  such  large  numbers  in  the  next  century. 
Tlie  fourth  article  too  points  to  an  evil  of  which  we  hear  a  great 
deal  more  in  the  next  century,  and  it  foreshadows  a  redivision 
of  the  peoi)le  into  the  ricli  and  the  poor  as  soon  as  the  i)lebeians 
liave  secured  political  ecpialily.  The  admission  of  the  plebeians 
to  the  exclusive  college  of  l)riests  which  had  charge  of  die  Sibyl- 
line books  indicated  tlie  early  admission  of  the  plebeians  to  all 
the  important  priesthoods,  to  which  hitherto  i)atricians  alone 

had  been  eligible. 

124.  The  Praetorship  and  Curule  Aedileship,  366  B.  C. 
In  36G  two  new  offices  were  established,  those  of  praetor  and  cu- 
rule aedile,  and  certain  judicial  duties  which  the  consul  had  per- 
formed were  transferred  to  the  praetor.  In  this  way,  when  the 
consulship  w^as  thrown  open  to  the  plebeians  by  the  Licinian 
laws,  the  patricians  reserved  for  officials  of  their  own  order  cer- 
tain magisterial  powers,  because  plebeians  were  not  eligible  to 
the  praetorshii).  The  curule  aedileship  also  was  open  only  to 
members  of  the  favored  order,  and  apparently  the  establishment 


79 


ROM  \\     IIISTOKV 


of  these  two  iiiaj^nstraeies  was  j>art  of  the  liarj^ain  on  the  l)asis 
of  which  the  patricians  adiiiittrd  [\iv  plebeians  to  the  eonsul- 
ship.  In  this  v-ase,  however,  as  in  that  of  tfie  <'eiisorshi|),  there 
was  probably  also  a  real  nccil  of  more  officials  to  attend  to 
the  [)ubHe  biisinrss. 

125.  Compromise  Arranged  between  the  Senate  and 
the  Tribunes.  'I'he  tendency  of  the  patricians  and  [)lcl)cians  to 
work  lo<,^'thcr  more  luirnionionsly  is  shown  in  tlic  dcvelo|)inent 
of  more  friendly  relations  between  the  tribune  and  the  senate. 
The  iini)rovenient  in  their  relations  came  about  in  this  war.  The 
senate  niijrht  pass  a  bill,  but  as  soon  as  the  nui^^nstrate  tried  to 
a|>ply  it  to  the  citizens  c(>ncerne<l,  the  tribinic  ((.uld  interpose 
liis  veto  and  stop  all  a<ti<»n.  When  this  happened,  the  workinji; 
of  tin-  nuichineiy  of  <^oveiTnneiil  would  be  coniplctelv  suspended, 
and  the  Konians  fell  thai  il  wduld  be  far  beller  to  u'el  the  opinion 
of  ihv  triliuncs  with  refci-cn<e  to  a  measure  before  action  was 
taken  on  il.  Willi  ihis  purpose  in  mind  tlir  li-ibiuies  weic  ^iven 
seats  in  the  sctiate,  and  \\erc  allowed  to  interpose  their  objections 
formally  at  any  |»oint  in  the  pi()<ccdint;s,  and  if  they  objected 
to  a  bill,  no  attempt  was  made  by  the  ma;^nstrates  to  carry  it  out. 
Probably  in  this  period  too  the  triliunes  accpiiicd  the  ri<^*ht,  w  hirh 
they  e\«>rcised  freely  in  later  times,  of  calling-  meelin*4s  of  the 
seiiiite  and  laying-  matters  bcf(»re  it  lor  <(»nsideration.  This 
was  another  step —and  a  \'ery  tialura!  one  toward  ihe  amalj^a- 
liiiition  of  the  two  elements  in  the  conuiuniitv. 

126.  Further  Successes  of  the  Plebeians.  When  the  in- 
te*?rity  of  the  patrician  system  had  been  successfully  assailed  at 
one  point,  we  are  not  surjuised  to  find  that  it  soon  yielded  atoth- 
ers  also.  In  339  a  law  was  jjassed  providing  that  one  of  the  two 
censors  sliould  be  a  {ilebeian;  in  337  the  great  plebeian  leader 
(^uintus  Pul)lilius  Philf)was  eh-ctcd  to  the  praetorship,  and  even 
theeurule  aedileshii)  was  throw u  u|>en  to  the  plebeians  in  alter- 
nate years.  Consecpiently,  before  the  elose  of  the  fourth  century, 
the  plebeians  had  gained  one  of  the  important  politieal  rights 
for  which  they  were  struggling,  viz.,  the  right  to  hold  any  one  of 
the  magistracies     the  consulship,  praelorship,  censorship,  (juaes- 


Tii?:  surcEssFiL  sTHr(;(;i.i:s  oi-   tmk  i'Lf:bp:ians 


73 


torshij),  and  curule  aedileship.     A  plebeian  was  even  appointed 
dictator  in  3r)(). 

127,  The  New  Nobility.  By  these  measures  a  profound 
change  was  effected  in  the  organization  of  the  ruling  class.  The 
first  result  of  them,  of  course,  was  the  actual  election  of  i)lebeians 
to  the  magistracies.  A  second,  and  perhaj)s  more  im|)ortant, 
outcome  of  this  legislation  was  unexj)e<'ted.  ( )ne  would  natu- 
rally have  suj)posed  that,  since  elevation  to  a  magi.itraey  came 
through  free  election  in  the  ])(»pular  asseml)lies,  of  two  plebeian 
candidates,  the  abler  man  wouhl  always  be  chosen;  and  this 
was  probably  the  way  things  went  at  first,  but  in  a  sliort  time  the 
eomparalively  few  plebeian  families  with  ancestors  who  had 
held  a  curule  oflice  and  distinguished  themselves  in  the  service 
of  the  state,  ac(|uir(Ml  such  prestige,  that  "new  men,"  as  tho.se 
were  called  who  could  j)oint  to  no  ancestral  consul  or  praetor, 
had  little  chaFK'c  of  securing  politi<'al  honors.  With  his  deeply 
ro<»led  resp(H  t  for  the  past  the  Komaii  jireferred  for  the  consul- 
ship a  man  whose  falh -r  or  grandfather  liad  been  consul.  lie 
seiMued  to  feel  that  political  ability  descended  from  one  genei- 
ation  to  another,  and  the  family  name  seemed  to  him  a  guaran- 
tee of  comi>etence.  Then,  too,  those  who  belonged  to  this  })riv- 
ileged  class  exerted  themselves  vigorously  to  keep  all  new  as- 
|)irants  out  of  it.  In  this  way  a  new  nobility  grew  up,  composed 
of  those  in  whose  families  there  had  been  curule  magistrates,  and 
the  new  nol)ility  became  hereditary,  and  was  well-nigh  as  ex- 
clusive as  the  patriciate  had  been.  The  privileges  of  theuew^ 
aristocracy  dcjH'ndcd,  as  we  see,  not  on  the  law,  but  on  the  organ- 
ization of  society.  Consecpiently  notliing  but  a  revolution  eould 
take  them  away. 

128.  The  Nobility  Acquires  Control  of  the  Senate.  A 
measure,  known  as  the  ( )vinian  law,  and  pas.sed  toward  the 
elose  of  the  fourth  century,  made  the  influence  of  the  new  order 
still  greater  and  its  position  still  more  exalted.  This  empowered 
the  censors  to  draw  up  the  list  of  senators,  and  instructed  them 
in  making  it  out  to  give  a  preference  to  ex-magistrates.  Conse- 
quently, membership  in  the  senate  also  became  practically  the 


74 


ROMAN   HISTORY 


hereditary  privilege  of  the  new  .iristocracy,  and  tlie  eontrol  ot 
botli  the  exeeiUive  and  the  legisluin  e  hraiiches  of  the  government 
passed  into  its  hands. 

129.  The  Consul  Becomes  the  Senate's  Minister.  All 
of  the  senators  were  now  men  of  cxperienee  in  government.  They 
often  had  a  mure  intimate  knowledge  of  the  teehnieal  matters 
whieh  eame  before  them  than  their  [iresiding  oifieer,  the  consul, 
had.  Some  of  them  were  ex-eonsuls,  and  had  filled  with  dis- 
tinetion  tlie  i)osition  whieh  he  held  at  the  moment.  They  were 
bound  togetiicr  by  mutual  interests  in  defending  one  anoUier 
and  in  advaueing  the  |)restige  of  the  body  to  wliieh  they  all  be- 
longed. Their  rsprtf  dc  corps  ^\'as  not  unlike  that  of  our  own 
Senate.  In  many  ways,  also,  they  could  thwart  the  eonsul's 
political  plans  and  ])ersonal  ambition.  The  result  was  incvital)le. 
The  consul  was  forced  to  yield  to  the  .senate,  and  In-caiiu-  its 
minister  in  executing  its  wishes,  and  the  senate  bccanu:  the  real 
source  of  authority  in  all  matters  of  stale. 

130.  The  Publilian  and  Hortensian  Laws.  Two  impor- 
tant |»icccs  of  legislation  in  the  period  under  discussion  remain 
tor  eonsi<lerati()n— the  Publilian  law  of  .3:31)  and  the  Hortensian 
law  of  2<S7.  Taken  togetlier  tin  y  ihcHU'etically  made  the  popular 
assemblies  iiidependeiit  of  the  senate.  After  287  the  action  of 
the  jilebeian  tribal  assembly,  and  probal)ly  of  the  i)atricio-i)lebe- 
iau  tribal  assembly,  no  longer  neided  the  confirnuition  of  the 
patrician  members  of  the  senate  to  nuike  it  valid,  as  had  been 
hitherto  necessary,  and  in  the  case  of  the  centuriute  comitia  the 
patrician  clement  in  the  senate;was  ol)liged  to  apjirove  a  bill^  be- 
fore the  centuries  had  acted  upon  it,  instead  of  afterwards.  But 
we  nuist  not  sui)pose  that  these  two  la\\s  gave  the  assemblies  of 
the  people  |)ractical  control  of  legislation,  or  that  the  passage  of 
the  Hortensian  law  nuirked  the  final  triumph  of  democracy  over 
aristocracy.  In  point  of  fact,  only  a  magistrate  could  bring  a 
l)ill  before  one  of  tlie  popular  assemblies,  and  the  .senate  found 
means  to  eontrol  the  nuigistrates,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  so 
that,  with  rare  exceptions,  only  those  measures  of  which  the 
senate  approved  were  submitted  to  tiic  assemblies. 


f 


: 


/  ^ 


THE   SUCCESSFUL   STRUGGLES  OF  THE   l'LEBEL\NS  75 

131.  The  Senate  Usurps  the  Power  of  the  Assemblies. 

The  reasons  why  the  i^eople  allowed  the  senate  to  rule  them  are 
not  far  to  seek.  The  citizens  who  had  the  right  to  vote  numbered 
in  this  period  from  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  to  three 
hundred  thousand.  Many  of  them  lived  at  a  distance  from 
Rome.  It  was  obviously  impossible  in  such  circumstances,  to 
call  the  popular  assemblies  for  the  transaction  of  ordinary  pub- 
lie  business.  Probably  the  people,  too,  tacitly  recognized  the 
fact  that  the  members  of  the  senate^ — ex-magistrates  as  most 
of  them  now  were— were  far  better  (juaiified  than  the  average 
citizen  to  legislate  for  a  society  which  was  becoming  every  day 
more  complex,  and  for  a  state  which  was  no  longer  bounded 
bv  the  walls  of  the  citv  or  the  frontiers  of  Latium,  but  extended 
from  one  end  of  the  peninsula  to  the  other.  The  superior  quali- 
fications of  the  senate  must  have  been  especially  apparent 
during  the  series  of  long  wars  wliich  begin  in  the  middle  of  the 
third  century.  These  wars  were  for  the  most  part  carried  on  at 
a  great  distance  from  Rome,  and  the  average  Roman  could 
scarcely  form  an  intelligent  opinion  in  regard  to  the  difficult 
military  and  diplomatic  questions  at  issue.  For  the  good  of  the 
state  he  was  willing  to  leave  such  matters  to  the  senate,  even 
thouiih  his  doing  so  involved  a  failure  to  exercise  the  very  power 
for  the  possession  of  wliich  lie  liad  so  long  fought. 

132.  Summary  of  the  Political  Changes,  509 -264  B.C. 
If  we  stop  to  ask  ourselves  what  political  changes  the  first  two 
centuries  and  a  lialf  of  the  republic  have  brought  about,  we  shall 
find  them  very  radical.  The  senate,  whicli  has  lost  its  ex- 
clusively patrician  character  and  lias  been  strengthened  by  the 
infusion  of  plebeian  l)lood,  controls  all  legisladon,  and  has  made 
tlic  masristrates  its  ministers.  Administrative  affairs  are  no 
longer  left  to  a  single  college  of  magistrates,  but  the  original 
functions  of  the  consul  have  been  divided  between  the  consul- 
ship and  several  newly  created  offices,  and  administration  has 
l)een  made  more  efficient  thereby,  for  the  praetor,  the  censor,  the 
tribune,  the  i)lebeian  and  the  curule  aedile,  and  the  quaestor  now 


76 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


relieve  thr  ((msiil  of  many  of  »he  dnllr^  which  iiail  rnileii  to  him 
at  tlie  outset.  ( itizeiis  \\h.)  own  laiul,  meetiii^^  in  their  |)«)|)nhn- 
assemblies,  have  llu-  unRslii<hMl  power  ol*  le<,nslatino;  on  an\ 
subject  wliatever.  The  (ommon  law  is  published,  so  that  every 
man  may  know  it,  and  no  citizen  can  l)e  condemned  to  deatli 
without  tlic  consent  of  the  centurfatc  assembly.  The  plebeian 
has  the  same  riglit  as  tlie  [)atrician  to  stand  for  |)olitical  office, 
and  is  even  eli^nble  to  those  priesthoods  which  have  a  political 
influence.  Even  the  freedmen  and  the  landless  freemen  have- 
some  share  in  the  o;(>vermnent.  All  these  (  han^cs  are  over- 
shadowed, however,  by  the  <,'rowth  of  a  new  nobility,  which  is 
made  up  of  |>atricians  and  plebeians,  j)eri)etuated  from  <rener- 
ation  to  generation  by  its  own  efforts  and  by  the  conservative 
habits  of  tlie  Roman  freeman. 

133.  Improvement  of  the  Currency.  The  ((onomicand 
social  develojMiKUit  of  the  people  from  olM)  to  2(>!  was  as  marked 
as  the  j)olitical.  The  |)ractice  of  barterin<,r  conunodities,  for 
instance,  had  hmg  beiMi  <,nven  up,  and  the  use  of  cop|)er  money, 
which  succeeded  that,  gave  way  in  2(;S  to  a  currency  made  up 
of  silver  and  <-opper  coins.  \\  the  same  time  a  common  mone- 
tary stjinc  hi  rd  was  adopted  for  the  \vhol<>  j)eninsula,a.nd  the  right 
to  coin  monev,  with  one  or  two  uniin|)ortant  exceptions,  was  re- 
served by  Home  as  her  exclusiv.-  j)rerogafive.  These  ehanges, 
it  will  be  noticed,  followed  closely  on  the  conelusion  of  the  war 
with  Pyrrhus  and  the  subjugation  of  Magna  GraH'ia.  They 
pi>iiit  clearly  to  the  develo|)ment  of  commercial  relations  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  Italy,  to  the  increase  of  wealth,  and 
to  an  intention  on  tlie  part  of  Rome  of  making  iMrself  the  com- 
mercial centn"  of  th<'  peninsula. 

134.  The  Italian  Yeomanry.  The  Licinian  laws,  by  n- 
stricting  the  amount  of  arable  state  land  whi<h  an  indivi<lual 
could  acquire,  must  have  heli>ed  to  increase  the  number  of  small 
farmers.  The  policy  of  sending  out  colonies  of  needy  citizens 
to  newly  acquired  territory  tendc^l  in  the  same  direction.  Upon 
the  jjopulation  of  Italian  yeom-  n  thus  developed  depended  in 
lart'c  measure  the  sturdv  r<'sisl;ince  which  R<  me  made  in  the  next 


:; 


Till-:  sr((  i:ssirK  sTitrc.'JLEs  ok   the  plebeians        77 
few   «re„(M-ations   u-der  the  crushing  weight   of  the  wars  with 

(  /I  ri  1  KM**!*, 

135.^Great  Estates  and  Slaves.  ^Fhe  increase  of  wealth, 
however,  which  we  have  already  noticed,  threatened  the  i)eas- 
ant  projH-ietor.  The  rich  accpiired  great  estates  in  Italy,  had 
them  cultivated  by  slaves,  and,  carrying  on  the  cultivation  of  the 
land  on  a  large  scale  withcheai)  labor,  could  undersell  the  free 
owneu  of  a  >.mall  farm.  It  was  this  state  of  things  which  the 
Licinian  laws  vainly  sought  to  remedy  through  the  provision 
which  limited  thenmnber  of  slaves  to  be  employed  on  a  given 
estate.  The  number  of  slaves  an<l  freedmen  too  in  the  city  was 
increasing.  They  absorbed  the  manual  arts,  so  that  there  must 
have  been  verv  few  free  jirtisans. 

136.  Improvement  of  the  City.  The  increase  in  the 
wealth  and  importance  of  Rou.e  was  reilected  in  the  growth  and 
improvement  of  tli<'  city.  At  the  beginning  of  this  period  it  had 
been  a  village ;  it  was  now  a  city.  Toward  the  close  of  the  fourth 
century  the  great  censor  Appius  ( naiidius  constructed  the  Appian 
A(iued'uct,  the  first  of  the  great  axiueducts  upon  which  even 
i.MMlern  Home  <lepcn(ls  for  its  generous  supply  of  pure  water, 
an<l  within  a  half  ci  ntury  a  new  aciueduct,  known  as  the  Anio 
Vetus  was  added,  whicl'i  brought  the  pure  water  of  the  river 
\nio  to  the  city  by  a  conduit  whose  length,  if  its  windings  be 
eounted  in,  was  n'lore  than  forty  miles.  Private  houses  were 
lander  and  were  built  of  better  material.  Many  temples  had 
1k4  constructed,  an«l  the  city  was  adorned  with  monuments 
and  with  statues  of  the  gods  and  of  illustrious  Romans. 

137.  The  Construction  of  Roads.  The  construction  of  the 
great  system  of  military  and  commercial  roads  begins  in  this 
period  with  the  building  of  the  Via  Appia  from  Rome  to  Capua 
in  :\\2  B.  ('.  l>y  Api)ius  Claudius.  Within  a  short  time  this 
road  was  ext(  nd(>d  to  l^rundisium.  Before  the  close  of  the  next 
two  centuries  four  otlier  great  ll.oroughfares,  and  numerous  con- 
ncMtiiH'  roads,  had  beim  constructed  in  the  peninsula.  The 
Via  Fhiminia,  which  was  begun  in  2\)\)  n.  c,  ran  almost  due 
north  to  Ariminum,  and  under  the  name  of  the  Via  Aemilia  was 


■TT7r»7»*|^  ,;^;;, 


78 


ROilAX    HISTORY 


continued  to  Placentia.  Tiic  Via  (  assia  pas^iii^'  through  central 
Italy  was  Imilt  as  far  as  I. una  in  ('isalj)inc  (iaul  about  171  B.  <  . 
The  Via  Aurelia  was  the  (oast  road  to  tlie  same  point,  and  was 
prolon<;ed  to  (u'Ikki  in  109  h.  c.  T\\v  fourth  <;reat  road,  the 
Via  Popillia,  took  its  name  from  l\)pi]luis,  the  consul  of  1)]2  n.  r. 
It  hranclied  off  from  tlie  Via  A])pia  at  ('aj)ua,  and  ran  to  Uhe- 
gium.  The  provinces  also  were  i)ro\ided  with  an  excellent 
sv>tem  of  roads.  So,  for  instance,  in  tlie  middle  of  the  second 
century  n.  €.,  innnediately  after  the  ac(juisition  of  Macedonia, 
a  road  was  built  to  connect   Dyrrachium,   the  port  of  entry  from 


THE    APPIAN    WAY    NEAR    ROME,    WITH    TOMBS 

Brundisium,  with  Thessalonica,  and  the  Via  AunTui,  in  cjiursc 
of  time,  was  extended  throuj]rh  southern  (iaul  and  alou;j  the 
eastern  coast  of  Spain  to  the  straits  of  Gibraltar,  with  branches 
running  to  all  the  important  towns  in  tlie  interior.  These  roads, 
like  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  in  Russia,  first  of  all  served  the 
purposes  of  the  f^'overnment  in  sendin^^  communications,  supplies, 
and  troops  to  points  in  Italy  and  the  f)rovinces,  but  in  a  greater 
degree  they  facilitated  trade  throughout  the  em[)ire,  and  formed 


THE   SUCCESSFTTL   STRIKJGLES   OF    THE    PLEBEIANS 


79 


I 

r 


a  l)owerlul  agency  in  introducing  Roman  civilization,  in  making 
the  empire  a  unit,  and  in  developing  a  common  life  and  common 
mstitutions  throughout  the  world.  Portions  of  these  roads 
which  are  still  in  existence  show  the  care  with  which  they  w^ere 
built.  Some  of  them  were  constructed  of  as  many  as  five  layers 
of  rubble  and  thick  flat  stones,  with  a  top  layer  of  hard  paving 
blocks.  Under  the  empire  a  regular  postal  svstem  was  instituted 
along  the  ])ublic  roads,  inns  were  built,  and  relays  of  horses  and 
\chicles  were  obtainable. 

138.  Influence  of  Magna  Graecia  upon  Rome.  That 
Rome  came  into  contact  with  the  (ireek  civilization  of  southern 
Italy  at  the  moment  when  her  wealth  was  increasing  rapidly  had 
a  marked  effect  on  social  conditions  and  on  the  state  of  the  arts 
a.uong  the  Romans.  They  accpiired  a  taste  for  luxuries  and  for 
the  rehncnuMits  of  life  and  at  the  same  time  the  means  to  gratify 
It.  The  Roman  soldiers  serving  in  ]\Iagna  Gra^'ia  came  to 
know  something  of  Greek  styles  of  arcliitecture  and  ornamen- 
tation in  private  and  public  buildings,  of  the  appliances  which 
make  life  more  comfortable,  of  the  use  of  more  beautiful  mate- 
rials to  ])lease  the  eye,  or  of  delicacies  to  tempt  the  appetite,  or  of 
|)leasures,  like  the  theatre,  to  divert. 

139.  Religious  Changes.   Upon  the  character  of  the  Roman 
religion  the  Greeks  exerted  a  i)rofound  influence.     All  of  the 
(ireek  gods  had  forms  and  (pialities  not  unlike  those  of  men  and 
women,  so  that  when  they  were  brouglit  to  Rome  they  were  rep- 
resented by  statues  and  had   temples  built  for    them  in  which 
they  were  thought  of  as  living.     The  tendency  to  personify  the 
gods  naturally  extended  to  the  national  Roman  deities.     So,  for 
instance,  at  an  early  period  we  liear  of  a  statue  of  Jove  and  a 
temi)le  of  Jove  on  tlie  Capitol.     This  change  in  the  conception 
of  the  gods  brought  men  into  closer  relations  with  them,  and 
made  peoi)le  take  a  more  active  part  in  public  worship.     We 
have  noticed  a  few  of  the  point.s  at  which  the  contact  of  the 
Romans  with   the  Greek  civilization  of  southern  Italy  made 
itself  felt.  How  profoundly  Greek  influence  developed  or  moulded 
Roman  religion  and  literature,  and   how  it  affected  the  daily 


'V 


UO-MA.N     lllsKHv^ 


continued  to  Plaet'ntia.  'V\iv  \'ia  (avsia  |)a>^ini.'-  thron^h  central 
Italv  \va>  Imih  a>  far  a>  liUna  in  <  "i>al|Mnc  (laul  ahont  171  B.  <'. 
The  \'ia  Aurelia  was  the  eoast  road  to  the  >anie  j)oint,  and  was 
prolonj^'ed  to  (iencia  in  lO'J  n.  c.  The  fourth  ^reat  road,  tiie 
Via  I'oj»illia,  look  it^  name  from  I'o|)in'U>,  the  consul  of  l.'J_'  n.  c. 
It  hranehed  olV  from  the  Ma  A|)j)ia  at  ("a|Hia,  and  ran  to  Uhe- 
^nuin.  Tlie  provinces  alM»  were  |)ro\ided  with  an  exeeilent 
sv>tem  of  road^.  So,  for  iiislan**-,  in  the  middh-  of  the  -.ecoiid 
centurv  n.  c,  innnediatciv  after  the  ae(|ui.sition  of  Ah'eedoiiia, 
a  road  was  built  to  eonneet    Ihrraehium,    tiie  port  of  iiilrv  from 


Tin:    AI'PIAN     WAY     M.AK     liOMK.     W  1 1  H    TOMIJS 

Hrnndisinm.  with  The^aloniea,  and  the  \'ia  Aureha,  in  course 
of  time.  wa>  cxlended  ihrou^j^h  southern  (iaul  and  alon;^'  the 
oastern  coast  of  Spain  to  the  straits  of  (Iil>raltar,  with  hranehes 
ruiHiin;^'  to  all  the  inijiortaiit  towns  in  the  interior.  These  roads, 
like  the  Trans-Sil)erian  railway  in  liussia,  first  of  all  served  the 
purpoN(s  of  the;:()V(Tnnient  in  sendinu- communication-.  su|)|)hes, 
and  ti'oops  to  p(»inl>-  in  Italy  and  the  pi'o\inces,  hut  in  a  ^i-eater 
decree  they  facilitated  trade  throughout  the  empire,  and  formed 


Till.:  SI  ((Kssiri,  sTm  (a.j.Ks  of  the  pi.kbeiaxs 


79 


a  |)owerlul  agency  in  introdueing  Roman  civilization,  in  makin- 
'Ih'  en.pire  a  unit,  and  in  developing  a  ( on.n.on  life  and  eommon 
..isl.tutions  throughout  the  world.  Portions  of  these  roads 
which  are  still  m  existenee  show  the  eare  with  which  they  were 
huilt  Some  of  them  were  constructe.l  of  as  manv  as  five  la  vers 
ol  rubble  ami  thick  flat  stones,  with  a  top  layer  of  hard  paving 
l>Iocks.  I  nder  the  empire  a  ivgular  postal  svsteni  was  instituted 
along  the  public  roads,  inns  were  built,  and  relays  of  horses  and 
vehicles  were  obtainable. 

138.  Influence  of  Magna  Grascia  upon  Rome.  That 
I^)meeame  int(,  contact  with  the(;reek  civilizati<m  of  southern 
Ilaly  at  the  moment  when  lier  wealth  was  increasing  rapidlv  ha<l 
a  marked  eth.ct  „„  Mxial  conditions  and  on  the  state  of  the  arts 
au.ong  the  Romans.  TUvy  ac<,uired  a  taste  for  luxuries  and  for 
h  the  refin.-ments  of  life  and  at  ihe  same  time  the  means  to  gratify 

II.  ^rhe  Roman  soldiers  serving  in  Ab.gna  (uieeia  came  to 
know  something  of  (ireek  styles  of  arehifectuiv  and  ornamen- 
'almn  in  private  and  public  buildings,  of  the  appliances  which 
uiake  life  more  coinh)rtable,  of  the  use  (,f  more  beautiful  mate- 
rials to  please  the  eye,  or  of  delicacies  to  tempt  the  ajipetite,  or  of 
|)leasures,  like  the  theatre,  to  divert. 

139.  Religious  Changes.    Tpon  the  character  of  the  Roman 
religion   the  (;reeks  exerte.l  a    profound   influence.     All  of  the 
(nvvk  gods  had  forms  and  (jualities  not  unlike  those  of  men  and 
women,  so  that  when  they  were  brought  to  Rome  thev  were  rep- 
r.-scnled  by  statues  and  had    temples   built  for    them  in  which 
Ihey  were  thought  ni'  as  living.     TUv  tendency  to  personify  the 
gods  naturally  extende.l  to  the  national  l^oman  deities.     So,  for 
instance,  at  an  early  perio.l  we  hear  of  a  statue  of  Jove  and  a 
h'Miple  of  J,>\v  on  Ihe  (  apitol.     This  change  in  the  concepti(m 
of  the  gods  brought  men  into  closer  relations  with  them,  and 
made  people  take  a  more  active  part  in  public  worship.     We 
liave  noticed  a  few  of  the  points  at  which  the  contact  of  the 
Romans   with    the   Greek  civilization   of  southern   Italy   made 
itself  felt.   II(,w  profoundly  Greek  influence  developed  or  moulded 
Roman  religion  and   literatuie,  and    how  it  affected  the  daily 


80 


noMW  insToKV 


liiV  and  u  av  of  tliinkin*;  of  tlii-  Hcm.aiis  as  time  wrnt  on,  we  shall 
Mr  more  clearly,  a>  ^^v  Innc  ll.r  <(»nrsr  ..f  alVairs  in  suhsrciunit 
jH'iiods.  >l   -D     P 

140.  Summary  of  Events  at  Home  from  509  to  264  B.C. 

At   llu'  l)c^niuiin<^  of  thi.  iKTiod.  as  ^vv   liaxv    >.rn,  a    revolution 
leads  to  thesuhstituHou  ol  the  eonsulshii)  for  the  kin<rshil).     The 
plebeians  obtain  the  tribunate,  a  better  political  orjranization, 
tla-  publication  of  the  connnon  lau  .  and  the  ri^dit  to  intermarry 
with  the  patricians.      Afte   a  lon^'  stru*.'^!*'  'l^^'.^'  ^'''"'••'  ''»^'  l>nssa«r<" 
of  the  Licinian  laws,  admission  to  the  consulshij)  and  to  the  newly 
established  oHiccs.     These  victories  brin<r  to  a  successful  com- 
pletion the  Iniio;  stru^^^di    of  the  |>lebeians  for  l)olitical  e(iuality 
with  the  patricians.      The  nc.bility  <rains  control  of  the  senate, 
and  through  the  senate  c.ntrols  the  mapstrates.     The  Pubhlian 
ami  Ilorlensian  laws  make  the  poj.ular  assemblies  nominally, 
h„t  not  really,  indep«-nd<nl  of  the  senate.      Aciueducts  and  r.»ads 
are    bnilt;    the    money    i>   improved,    and    the   c(.n<lili(»n    of    the 
farnuMs  in  Italy  is  temporarih  relieve*!. 


. 


('ii.\rrFd{  \i 

KXi'\.\-<i')\    !!i.\()M)    rill,  si:\ 

]ln\\.    I;<m:i<    wn-sd'd  fi(uti  Cariii  ijc  tlu'  roinrdl  of  tlu'  Western.  fr(»ni  Mace- 
(iimiii  und  S>  ri;i,  <»i  ihe  Maseru  Meiiiterraiieaii  vouiilr.e,;. 

141.  Rome*s  Preparation   for  Wars  Abroad.     With    the 

fall  of  Tarentum  and  the  snbju^ation  of  the  other  cities  of  Ma<j:na 
(ira-cia  tlit;  (-(nKiuest  of  Italy  is  com|»lctc.  The  next  staj^^e  in 
the  develojunent  of  Home  is  one  of  territorial  expansion  outside 
the  limits  of  Italy.  It  is  ;i  period  of  struj.'-j.rh'  with  a  <i:reat  Medi- 
terranean power  for  h)reign  commerce  and  for  the  control  of 


Tin.   ISLAM)  IN   nil    TiiM  i; 

the  western  Me  literra nean.  Tin-  chan.'jfcs  which  her  military 
system  ha\('  nnder^-one  during  the  Italian  w.ars  have  prepared 
Home  in  no  small  measnre  for  the  task  wliicli  she  now  takes  up. 
Iler  giMierals  hi\e  gained  exj>ei-ii-nce  in  the  management  of 
large  bodic>  ut  troops.  The  adoption  of  th-  proconsular  system 
has  made  it  possible  to  carry  out  eoiisisleiitly  a  j)lan  of  campaign 
running  through  >e\(i;d  ycar>  I  In  soldiers  are  well  trained  and 
etiicient. 


80 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


life  and  wav  of  thinking;  of  the  Remans  as  time  went  on,  we  shall 
see  more  elearly,  as  wr  Irace  the  <-oursc  of  affairs  in  subseciuent 

1 

140.  Summary  of  Events  at  Home  from  509  to  264  B.  C. 

At  the  beKiuning  of  tliis  period,  as  we  have  seen,  a  revoUition 
leads  to  the  substitution  of  the  eonsulshii)  for  tlie  kinjijship.     The 
l)lebeians  obtain  the  tribunate,  a  better  political  orc^anization, 
the  i>u})lieation  of  the  common  law,  and  the  rij^ht  to  intermarry 
with  the  i)atrieiaiis.     Afte  a  long  struggle  they  secure  the  passage 
of  the  Licinian  laws,  admission  to  the  eonsulshii)  and  to  the  newly 
established  offices.     These  victories  bring  to  a  successful  com- 
pletion the  long  struggle  of  the  i)lebeians  for  political  ecpiality 
with  the  patricians.     Thr  nobility  gains  control  of  the  senate, 
and  through  the  senate  (controls  the  magistrates.     The  Pubhhan 
and  Ilortensian  laws  make  the  popular  assemblies  nominally, 
but  not  really,  independent  of  the  senate.     Acpieduets  and  roads 
are   buih;   the   money   is   improved,   and   the  condition   of    the 
farmers  in  Italv  is  trini)orarilv  relieved. 


♦ 


(TIAFTEK  VI 

EXPANSION     liKYONI)    TIIK    SKA 

(2r4-133B.  C.) 

Ifow  Rome  wn^sttnl  from  Cardiaiio  the  oontrol  of  the  Western,  from  Mace- 
<l()iiiii  and  Syria,  of  the  Ivasterii  Mediterranean  countries. 

141.  Rome's  Preparation  for  Wars  Abroad.  With  the 
fall  of  Tareiitum  and  the  subjugation  of  the  other  cities  of  Magna 
(Jra'cia  the  contjuest  of  Italy  is  complete.  The  next  stage  in 
the  development  of  Rome  is  one  of  territorial  exj)ansion  outside 
the  limits  of  Italy.  It  is  a  period  of  struggle  with  a  great  Medi- 
terranean power  for  foreign  commerce  and  for  the  control  of 


THE    ISLAND  IN    THE    TIBER 

the  western  Mediterranean.  The  changes  which  lier  military 
system  have  undergone  din*ing  the  Italian  wars  have  prepared 
Rome  in  no  small  measure  for  the  task  which  she  now  takes  up. 
Her  generals  have  gained  experience  in  the  management  of 
large  bodies  of  troops.  The  adoption  of  th-  proconsular  system 
has  made  it  j)ossible  to  carry  out  consistently  a  plan  of  campaign 
runnin«r  throui^di  se\ cral  vears.  Her  .soldiers  are  well  trained  and 
efiicient. 

81 


82 


ROM  AX    HISTORY 


142.  Reorganization  of  her  Army.  She  Tias  roorrranized 
her  army,  as  we  liave  observed,  and  improved  her  ta(ii(s.  The 
soldiers  are  l)etter  ariiied,  and  the  solid  phahiiix,  whieli  liad  heen 
tlirowii  into  disorder  if  broken  at  any  point,  has  given  way  to  a 
more  flexil)le  formation,  which  allows  the  soldiers  of  the  front 
rank  to  retire  between  tliose  of  tlie  rank  immediately  behind, 
this  change  makes  it  jiossibie  to  oppose  fresli  men  to  the  enemy 
constantly,  and  to  use  tlie  weapons  and  method  of  fighting  most 
suite<l  to  the  needs  of  the  moment. 

143.  Its  Size.  The  Roman  armv  has  also  been  greatly  en- 
larged  l)y  the  addition  of  troops  furnished  by  the  Italian  allies. 
Just  before  the  seetjnd  great  war  of  the  period  w  liieh  we  are  now 
taking  up,  the  Roman  amialist  Fabius  drew  from  the  records  of 
the  time  the  official  estimate  of  seven  hundred  and  seventy 
thousand  as  the  numl)er  of  troops  at  Rome's  dis])osal.  Of 
these  liome  furnished  three  liundred  and  t\\t'nly-fi\<'  thousaiul 
and  the  allies  the  remainder.  r''lie  infantry  numbered  se\en 
hun<lred  thousand,  the  cavalry  seventy  thousand.  In  actual 
service  at  anv  one  time  toward  the  close  of  the  tliird  century 
there  were  from  eighteen  to  twenty-three  legions.  This  would 
indicate  an  army  ruiming  from  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
to  two  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  men  actually  in  the  field. 

144.  The  Navy.  On  the  sea  tlie  Romans  were  lamentably 
weak.  We  see  shi|)s  of  war  represented  on  early  Roman  coins, 
and  the  conuiiereial  treaties  whieli  she  liad  made  witli  C'arthaire 
and  Tarentum,  as  well  as  the  aj)[)ointnient  of  naval  officers, 
point  to  the  develojiment  in  some  measure  of  Rome's  seagoing 
power,  l)nt  her  na\y  was  small,  and  her  sailors  ine\|)erienced,  in 
com])arison  with  tliose  of  the  great  Mediterranean  states,  Car- 
thage and  ( Jrei'ce. 

145.  The  Situation  of  Carthage.  We  have  already  noticed 
that  Italy  faces  the  west.  This  fact  made  her  commerce  develop 
in  tliat  direction  and  brought  her  into  conflict  with  Carthage, 
tlie  great  commercial  power  of  the  western  Mediterranean.  The 
city  of  ( 'arthage  lav  on  the  shore  of  nortliern  Africa  where  it  juts 
out  toward  Sicily  and  Ital\ .  a  I  the  }>ottom  of  a  deep  bav  whose 


EXPANSION    BEYOND   THE   SEA 


83 


sides  extend  out  to    form  the  ]>r()montories  of  A|)ollo  and  of 
Hermes.     It  was  built  on  a  })eninsula  which  ])r()jects  into  the 
open  bay,  was  provided  with  i\  citadel,  or  Byrsa,  considered  im-, 
pregnable,  two  artificial  harbors,  as  well  as  an  open  roadstead, 
and  was  said  to  contain  over  seven  hundred  thousand  inhal>itants. 

146.  Her  Colonial  Empire.  The  leadership  of  Carthage 
was  acknowledged  by  the  coast  towns  of  northern  Africa  as  far 
west  as  the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  by  certain  colonies  on  the  oi)posite 
coast  of  S]>ain,  and  by  important  commercial  centres  in  Sicily  and 
Sardinia.  Her  ambitions  were  purely  commercial.  Wherever 
tlie  natural  advantages  seemed  tempting,  her  enter|)rising  mcr- 
ehanls  established  a  trading-post,  or  founded  a  manufacturing 
colony,  or  developed  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country. 

147.  Her  Government,  Army,  and  Navy.  The  goyein- 
ment  of  Carthage  was  conducted  by  a  "committee  of  one  hun- 
dred," membershii)  in  which  became  hereditary  in  the  families  of 
the  mercantile  aristocracy,  but  the  elfective  administration  of  pub- 
lic afi'airs  by  this  oligarchy  was  seriously  hampered  by  the  great 
influence  which  the  army  accjuired  in  political  matters.  When 
Rome  was  brouglit  into  conflict  with  her,  the  armies  of  Cartilage 
were  made  up  of  mercenaries  of  Xumidian  cavalry,  of  slingers 
from  the  Balearic  Isles,  of  trained  (ireeks  and  undisciplined 
(;auls.  Her  men-of-war,  on  the  other  liand,  were  manned  by 
citizens  who  had  si)ent  their  lives  at  sea,  and  the  number  and 
size  of  her  vessels  made  her  the  foremost  naval  i)owcr  in  the 


wor 


id. 


148.  Elements  of  Weakness  :  Her  Extended  Territory. 

The  points  in  wliicli  Carthage  was  weak  when  comj)ared  with 
Rome  are  apparent.  Her  territory  was  matle  up  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  stretching  for  hundreds  of  miles  along  the  northern 
shore  of  Africa.  Her  possessions  in  Spain  and  Sicil}'  were  also 
confined  to  the  coast.  To  i)rotect  so  straggling  a  domain,  and 
to  secure  prompt,  concerted  action  from  peoples  so  widely  scat- 
tered was  well-nigh  impossible.  Tlie  territory  of  Rome  on  the 
other  hand  was  compact,  and  Italy  was  a  geographical  unit. 


84 


IJOMAX    iii>ioia' 


149.  Her  Loose  Organization.     This  rl(  tm  nt  of  diffcreiKT 

was  iiicivasrd  Uy  tlie  fad  tliaf  tin-  colonial  cnifiirc  of  Caiilia^v 
was  an  ( irj^anization  wliosi-  parts  wtvrc  very  loosi'ly  liekl  togelluT, 
while  tlic  several  Italian  states  were  weKled  \nU>  a  stron*;'  eon- 
federation  wliieli  iiad  eonie  lu  i.- o^nize  tilt-  cniiipara  tive  liheral- 
ity  of  Home's  iM»li(\  t(»v\ard  ilieni  aiul  the  'Ai^doiii  of  aeee|)tin<^ 
her  leadersliij).  The  war  apiin>t  the  foieijj:n  kini!;,  Pyrrhus, 
had  even  developed  in  them  iitinient  of  regard  fur  United 

Italy. 

150.  Her  People  Less  Hardy.  Then,  too,  the  Konums 
were  a  raee  of  soldiers,  and  had  heeii  trained  for  ji:enerations 
in  the  ^ehool  of  war.  Their  new  territory  liad  l)cen  gained  and 
held  l)y  h»ree  of  arms.  The  primary  |Mn-|>ose  of  the  Carthagini- 
ans, on  the  othei-  hand,  was  the  extension  of  iheir  eommerce,  and 
their  outposts  wt-re  held  rather  In  the  trader  than  the  man-at- 
arms.  Fiirtherm(»re,  a>  Polyhius,  the  (Ireek  historian  says,  in 
comparing  the  two  peojiles,  "the  I  talian-  iiatioii  are  l>y  nature 
superior  to  Phoeniriaiis  atnl  r.il>vaii>.  Koth  in  physical  strength 
and  eoura^re." 

151.  Her  Home  Government  Narrow.  Both  governments 
wen  controlled  hy  an  aristo(  racy,  but  the  Carthaginian  nol)ility 
perhaps  showed  more  class  selfishness  and  more  jealousy  of  its 
suecessful  connnanders  than  did  the  Roman  ari>tocracy.  This 
very  fa(  t  often  deprived  it  of  the  loyal  su|)port  both  of  the  g<iieral 
in  tlie  field  and  the  citizens  at  home.  In  this  connection,  howe\ cr, 
we  may  notice  one  important  military  advantage  which  the 
Cartliaginians  had.  Their  army  was  intrusted  to  a  single  leader, 
who  was  often  allowed  to  conduct  niilifnrA-  operations  for  .several 
years  in  succession,  while  tlie  Koiuiu  army  was  ordinarih'  in 
charge  of  two  consuls,  and  a  chano;(^  of  leaders  was  usuallv  made 
each  year. 

152.  Her  Army  Inefficient.  The  diti'erencc  in  the  com- 
position of  tlie  twoarmie>  hid  -oi  iinn,u-tant  Keai-ing  upon  tlie  out- 
come of  the  .^LiUggle  Ik  i  til  im  luo  peoples.  The  Cartha- 
ginians hlnn]  mercenaries  to  do  tlieir  fighting  for  tliem,  so  that  die 
great  liody  of  tlie  citizens  continued  to  carry  on  their  occupation's 


EXI'AXSIOX    nFYOXI)    TITF.    SRA 


85 


I 


; 


: 


I 


as  usual  during  a  war.  A  cann)aign  meant  to  them,  therefore, 
merely  a  tein])orary  increase  in  taxation.  When  Rome  engaged 
in  ;i  war  her  active,  able-bodied  citizens  wave  drafted  for  service, 
juid  the  very  strengtli  of  the  state  was  sapped.  This  Ls,  ho\vever, 
onlv  one  side  of  the  ease.  The  other  side  lias  been  clearly  seen 
by  Polybius:  "The  Carthaginians  have  their  ho[)es  of  freedom 
e\er  resting  o'l  the  courage  of  mercenary  troops;  the  Romans 
on  the  valor  of  their  own  citizens  and  the  aid  of  their  allies.  The 
result  is  that  even  if  the  Romans  liave  suffered  a  defeat  at  first, 
ihev  renew  the  war  with  undiminished  forces,  which  the  Cartha- 
giniaiis  cannot  do.  For,  as  the  Roiiians  are  fighting  for  country 
and  children,  it  is  impossible  for  them  io  relax  the  fury  of  their 
struiTLde:  but  th</v  persist  with  obstinate  resolution  until  thev 
have  ovcrcom*  their  enemies,  and  th<w  are  nev(M'  <>  dangerous 
IS  when  they  seem  reduced  to  desj>«  ration. 

153.  Carthage  and  Syracuse,  llic  int(M-estsof  the  Cartha- 
U'inians  in  Sicily  brouidit  them  into  rivalry  with  the  (iivek  towns 
(if  tl.  't  island.  The  most  powerful  of  these  t(>wns  was  the  city 
of  Svrac  use,  and  some  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  that  city  had  suc- 
ceeded in  confining  Carthage  to  the  western  end  of  the  island. 
But  the  Syracusans  found  it  impossible  to  check  permanently 
die  advance  of  their  enemies,  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  third 
century  the  Carthaginians  eontrollecl  two-thirds  of  the  island, 
that  is  to  say,  the  portion  which  lies  between  Camarina  and  the 
west(M'n  coast. 

154.  The  First  Punic  War  Begins  in  264  B.C.  The  situ- 
ation had  now  become  ominous  for  Rome  and  Italy.  If  the  Car- 
thaginians should  reach  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily,  the  safety 
and  freedom  of  southern  Italy  would  be  imperilled.  A  sudden 
turn  of  fortune  gave  them  a  foothold  there.  A  band  of  Cam- 
panian  mercenaries  liad  occupied  the  town  of  Mes.sana  on  the 
Strait  of  Messina,  and  were  besieged  by  Iliero,  king  of  Syracuse. 
One  party  ap[)eale(l  to  Carthage,  the  other  to  Rome,  for  help. 
The  Carthaginians  granted  the  request  for  aid,  and  after  much 
hesitation  tlic  Romans,  too,  .sent  a  relief  expedition,  which  suc- 
ceeded in  landing  in  Sicily,  in  s[)itc  of  the  efforts  made  by  the 


86 


ROM.W     HISTORY 


( 'artluit^iriicUi  fleet  to  jn'cvcnt  llieir  crossing  the  Straits,  and  de- 
feated first  \hv  Syrdcusan,  then  the  Carthaginian  forces. 


Mt.Ei'e*'* 


I  »ri' nil 'I  in  1 1 


O    C 


Kill  nniii'liiiiiii 


Heraclt  u 


gt.Ecno'^ 


[Roman  Territory 
ICarthaginian  Terfitor^ 
Allies  of  Carthage  li*  204  B.  C. 


A  t.'ri».'i  iiliin 


Sjrruru!.* 


CuiuunuaV 


UcluruB 


SICII.v:     THK     FIRST     PUNIC    WAK 


155.  Progress  of  the  War  in  Sicily.  Fortunately  the  Ro- 
mans came  to  ati  undtTstanding  witli  Hicro,  and,  profiting  by 
their  alUaiice  with  him,  they  found  no  serious  difficulty  in  mak- 
ing themselves  masters  of  those  Carlliaginian  towns  in  Sicily 
whicli  lay  at  a  distance  from  the  coast.  ^J'hcy  <'ven  captured 
Agrigentum,  which  the  enemy  had  made  its  liead({uarters,  but 
they  could  not  take  the  sea|)orts,  l)eeause  they  could  not  blockade 
them  l)y  scji,  and  the  Carthaginian  fleet  constantly  relieved  them 
with  supplies  and  rcitiforcements  of  men.  To  nuike  matters 
worse,  tlie  coast  town.^  uf  Italy  were  exposed  to  naval  attacks 
against  which  they  had  no  adecpiate  means  of  defense.  To 
quote  a  comparison  often  applied  to  tlie  contest,  it  was  "a  battle 
between  a  whale  and  an  elephant." 

156.  Construction  of  a  Fleet  in  260  B.C.  The  needs  of  the 
situation  were  brought  home  to  the  Romans  so  forcibly  that  they 
determined  to  l)uil<l  shi|)s  ca})able  of  meeting  the  enemy  at  sea 
on  equal  terms.     The  audacity  of  this  move  and  its  success  im- 


I 


EXPANSION    BEYOND   THE   SEA 


87 


pressed  the  Roman  imagination  in  later  days  very  deeply,  and 
marvelous  stones  grew  up  of  tlie  way  in  wliich  the  vessels  were 
constructed  and  the  seamen  trained.  ^Vhile  the  Romans  were 
being  taken  across  the  Strait  of  Messina  to  relieve  the  town  of 
Messana,  we  are  told,  a  great  Carthaginian  vessel  put  to  sea  to 
intercept  them,  and  charged  so  furiously  that  it  ran  aground 
and  fell  into  their  hands.  Modelling  their  vessels  on  tliis  ship 
of  the  enemy,  so  the  Roman  historians  say,  they  built  a  fleet  of 
a  hundred  (piincjuiremes,  or  vessels  with  five  banks  of  oars,  and 
twenty  triremes,  which  set  out  for  the  scene  of  hostilities  in  2()0. 
The  oarsmen  were  trained  on  land,  it  is  said,  !)y  being  placed  on 
rowers'  benches,  and  they  learned  in  this  imj)rovised  way  how 
to  proj)el  and  direct  a  vessel  at  sea. 

157.  The  Invention  of  the  Corvus.  Such  amateur  train- 
ing would  not  have  been  very  efl:'ective  })rol)ably,  had  it  not  been 
for  the  invention  of  a  device  which  prevented  the  Carthaginians 
from  profiting  by  their  experienced  seamanship.  Each  Roman 
ship  was  provided  with  a  gangway  thirty-six  feet  long  and  four 
feet  wide,  which  swung  on  a  })ivot  about  the  lower  end  of  a  stout 
pole  firmly  fixed  in  the  prow.  When  not  in  use  it  was  raised, 
but  when  the  enemy  came  near  enough  it  was  suddenly  dropped 
across  his  deck.  The  im|)act  drove  a  curved  iron  si)ike,  which 
was  let  into  the  lower  side  of  the  drawbridge,  into  the  deck  of 
the  enemy's  vessel  and  lield  the  two  ships  together.  The  spike 
was  shaped  like  a  crow's  beak,  and  from  this  fact  the  whole 
device  was  called  a  corvus  or  crow.  Across  the  gangway,  thus 
held  firmly,  the  Romans  rushed,  boarded  the  enemy's  ship, 
and  converted  the  contest  into  what  was  essentially  a  land  fight. 
In  such  a  battle  they  felt  no  anxiety  about  the  result. 

158.  The  Battles  of  Mylae  in  260  and  Ecnomus  in  256 
B.  C.  Armed  with  this  device,  of  which  the  Carthaginians  knew 
nothing,  the  Romans  set  sail,  and  met  the  enemy's  fleet  ofli  Myht, 
on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily.  "No  sooner  did  the  Carthaginians 
sight  their  opponents,"  as  Polybius  tells  us,  "than  with  joy  and 
alacrity  they  put  to  sea  with  a  hundred  and  thirty  sail,  feeling 
supreme  contempt  for  the  Roman  ignorance  of  seamanship. 


88 


H<»\IA.\      lll.N'l(llC\ 


Wlu-ri  they  iir;ir(<I  tlu'  ciiciny,  ;ui«l  >;i\v  tlic  'ctow.s'  raised  aloft 
on  the  j>rows  of  tin  *  a-ral  sliips,  tluy  were  for  a  time  in  a  state 
of  i)eri)lexity.'  Feelin*:,  however,  great  disdain  for  their  oj)- 
fx>nents,  those  on  board  the  ships  tliat  were  in  the  van  of  th.' 
S(iuadron  eharged  without  fhnchin*]:.  But  as  soon  as  they  came 
to  close  (juarters  their  slii|)s  were  iiivariahly  ti<,ditly  o^rappled  by 
these  machines;  the  enemy  boarde<l  by  means  of  the  'crows', 
and  engaged  them  on  their  decks.  The  result  was  that  they 
lost  the  first  thirty  slii})s  engag»<l,  crews  and  all,  and  eventually 
turned  and  lied,  bewilden«i  at  the  novelty  of  the  occurrence,  ;ind 
with  a  loss  of  fifty  slii[)s."  On  tlie  return  of  the  Roman  com- 
mander, Gains  Duilius,  to  the  (  ity,  a  monument  adorned  with 
the  rostra  or  brazen  biak^  of  the  enemy's  eaptured  ships,  and  so 
known  as  the  rolunwd  rosfrafn,  with  a  long  inscription  reciting 
the  achievements  of  the  lleet,  was  set  up  to  commemorate  this 
first  great  victory  at  sea.  This  memorial,  in  a  restored  form,  has 
come  down  to  us,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
interesting  records  of  Roman  luNtory.  Four  years  later  the 
Romans  won  another  great  naval  victory  olf  the  south  coast  of 
Sicily,  near  the  promontory  of  Kcnomus. 

159.  The  Carthaginians  Make  Xanthippus  their  Leader. 
Rome  followed  u|)  her  success  at  Ecnomus  b}'  landing  troops  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and  Cartilage  secme<l  at  the  ]>oint  of  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  Roman  leader  liegulus,  but  it  chanced 
that  at  this  moment  her  recruiting  agent  brought  back  with  him 
from  Greece  a  Lacedaemonian  named  Xanthip])us,  who  was 
trained  in. the  Spartan  discipline,  and  was  an  ex})erienced  soldier. 
His  skill  in  handling  troo]>s  and  Ins  success  in  enforcing  dis- 
cipline and  in  insjiiring  eiitliusiasm  in  the  army  was  so  apparent 
that  the  Carthaginians  entrusted  the  defense  of  the  city  to  him. 

160.  The  Defeat  of  Regulus  and  the  Loss  of  the  Fleet. 
The  essential  j)t)int  in  liis  method  of  fighting  lay  in  the  choice  of 
level  ground  where  the  cavalry,  in  which  the  Carthaginians  out- 
numbered and  surpassed  their  opponents,  and  the  elephants 
could  l)e  used  to  the  best  advaniair<  The  clepliants  were  placed 
in  a  single  line  in  front  of  the  whole  army,  and  the  cavalry  was 


EXPANSION'     BHVOND    TUK    SKA 


89 


t 


#. 


t 


^-■ 


'^ 


I 


stationed  on  the  wings.  When  the  two  forces  met,  the  elei)hants 
broke  through  the  centre  of  the  Roman  line  and  crushed  the  Ro- 
mans by  their  mere  weight,  while  the  cavalry  swept  around  the 
enemy's  flanks  and  threw  the  rear  into  confusion.  This  plan 
worked  well,  for  Regulus  was  taken  prisoner,  and  barely  two 
thousand  of  his  army  escaped  from  the  l)attle-field  and  were 
rescued  by  a  Roman  fleet.  As  if  misf(M'tunes  would  never  cease, 
this  fleet  encountered  a  fearful  storm  on  its  return  voyage  to  Italy 
and   out  of  three   hundred  and  sixty-four  vessels  only  eighty 

escaj>ed. 

161.  The  First  Punic  War  Ends  in  241  B.C.  The  scene  of 
active  operations  ^^'as  now  transferred  to  Sicily,  where  war  raged 
for  nearly  fifteen  vears.  At  last  Ilamilcar  Barcas  ("the  Thunder- 
bolt"),  the  brilliant  leader  of  the  Carthaginians,  \vas  hemmed 
in  by  land  and  sea  and  forced  to  surrender.  A  treaty  was  made 
in  241  under  which  the  Carthaginians  were  obliged  to  give  up 
their  Roman  prisoners,  to  surrender  their  holdings  in  Sicily, 
and  to  pay  the  Romans  in  ten  years  the  sum  of  three  thousand 
two  hundred  Attic  talents,  or  about  $3,8()(),()()(). 

162.  The  Results  of  the  War  for  Carthage.  The  loss  of 
Sicily  and  the  i>ayment  of  an  indemnity  constituted  l)Ut  a  small 
part  of  the  damage  done  to  Carthage.  Her  resources  had  been 
exhausted  by  the  demands  of  the  war;  her  trade  had  dropped 
away;  she  had  lost  control  of  the  sea  and  of  the  commerce  of  the 
w^estern  iMediterranean,  and  her  colonial  empire  was  thrown 
into  confusion.  To  crown  her  misfortunes,  no  sooner  was  the 
war  over,  than  an  insurrection  broke  out  among  her  soldiers,  and 
when  Hamilcar  set  out  with  a  fleet  to  quell  the  mutinous  troops 
in  Sardinia,  which  still  belonged  to  Carthage,  the  Romans 
claimed  that  the  expedition  was  really  directed  against  Rome, 
and  the  poor  Carthaginians  found  no  other  way  to  satisfy  them 
than  by  giving  up  Sardinia  to  Rome  and  paying  an  indemnity  of 
twelve  hundred  talents  more.  Corsica  w^as  occupied  by  the 
Romans  at  the  same  time. 

163.  The  Results  of  the  War  for  Rome.  The  material 
gains  which   Rome  made  lay  in  the  actiuisition  of  Sicily,  Sar- 


90 


ROM  AX    HISTORY 


dinia,  and  Corsica,  in  her  growth  as  a  naval  and  commercial 
|>ower,  and  in  the  jjreatrr  ^cnsc  of  security  which  Italy  fch  with 
the  two  neighboring  islands  u?idcr  Roman  control.  Sicily  is  so 
much  nearer  to  Italy  than  to  any  otlicr  part  of  the  mainland 
that  it  is  natural  to  think  of  it  as  belonging  politically  to  the 
peninsula.  At  all  events,  to  see  it  in  the  hands  of  another 
strong  and  ambitious  |)o\vcr  might  well  be  a  source  of  great 
anxiety  to  Italy.  Consc((uently  the  First  I*unic  War  was  not 
in  its  primary  purpose  a  simple  war  of  coiKjUcst  for  the  sake  of 
accpiiring  more  territory,  nor  was  it  a  conscious  step  toward 
ex|>ansion.  The  desire  to  extend  trade,  and  an  ambition  to 
make  Home  one  of  the  world-powers  were  among  the  motives 
for  the  first  expedition  to  Sicily,  it  is  true,  but  the  war  was 
I)rimarily  waged  for  the  defense  of  Italy  against  an  ami )it ions 
rival  who  seemed  steadily  creeping  nearer  and  nearei-.  It  was 
a  war  to  prexcnt  the  town  of  Messana,  and  the  < onsecpient  control 
of  navigation  in  the  Strait  (»f  Messina,  from  passing  into  the 
hands  of  Carthage.  But  with  the  winning  of  Sicily  and  Sar- 
dinia, the  appetite  for  contjuest  S|)rang  u\)  at  Home,  and  the 
commercial  ambitions  of  the  peo|)le  developed.  Henceforth 
the  merchant  is  constantly  sending  the  soldier  forth  to  open  up 
new  avenues  for  commerce,  and  to  j»roteet  his  commercial  en- 
terprises in  fields  whicli  liave  already  been  occupied. 

164.  The  Government  of  Sicily.  How  to  govern  territory 
outside  of  Italy  was  a  new  [)r()blem  for  the  Romans,  and  it  was 
fourteen  years  after  the  acquisition  of  Sicily  before  a  |)ermanent 
system  was  ado|)ted  for  the  island.  The  Italian  policy  of  isola- 
ting communities,  and  of  varying  the  relations  which  they  bore  to 
Rome,  was  apj)lied  to  Sicily  also,  but  in  most  other  res})ects  she 
was  put  on  a  different  basis  from  the  con(juered  states  in  the 
jieninsula.  The  Romans  |)robably  thought  that  loyalty  to  the 
home  government  could  not  develop  so  easily,  and  that  Ro- 
man institutions  could  not  be  introduced  so  readily  in  Sicily 
as  in  tlie  communities  of  Italy,  on  account  of  her  position  outside 
of  Italy,  and  lHMau>e  of  the  allegiance  which  her  people  had  lately 
borne  to  another  goveriuiient.     So  in  place  of  the  military  service 


EXPANSION  BEYOND  THE  SEA 


91 


required  of  the  Italian  states  they  substituted  tribute,  in  the  form 
of  tithes,  and  governed  the  province,  as  the  new  territory  was 
called,  by  a  praetor  sent  out  from  Rome. 

165.  The  Illyrian  War,  229  -  228,  and  the  Gallic  Wars, 
238  -  222  B.C.  Roman  energy  had  been  so  absorbed  during 
the  war  with  Carthage  by  the  struggle  to  the  south,  in  Sicily  and 
Africa  and  in  the  adjacent  waters,  that  trade  in  the  Adriatic  had 
been  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Illyrian  pirates.  A  campaign  of  two 
years  drove  them  from  the  sea,  however,  and  led  many  of  the 
towns  (jn  the  Greek  coast  across  the  Adriatic  to  join  the  Roman 
alliance.  An  uprising  among  the  Gauls  in  northern  Italy  was 
also  checked  after  a  hard  struggle,  and  their  territory  was  oc- 
cupied. The  road  to  the  north,  known  as  the  via  Flaminia,  was 
extended  to  Ariminum,  and  Latin  colonies  were  planted  at 
Placentia  and  Cremona.  This  conquest  brought  the  district 
of  Cisalpine  Gaul  within  the  confines  of  Italy,  and  extended  the 
Roman  frontier  to  the  xVlps.  Rome  was  henceforth  mistress 
of  all  Italy  from  the  Alps  to  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and  now 
that  the  pirates  had  been  swept  from  the  Adriatic  and  northern 
Italy  protected  by  the  barrier  of  the  Alps,  she  could  look  for- 
ward to  the  impending  struggle  with  Carthage  with  a  reasonable 
hope  that  she  would  not  be  harassed  by  enemies  in  the  rear. 

166.  Carthage  Develops  her  Power  in  Spain.  While  the 
Romans  were  engaged  in  strengthening  themselves  in  the  North, 
Carthage  liad  built  up  a  new  empire  in  the  West.  Shut  out  of 
lier  old  trading  posts  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  she  allowed  her  brave 
and  capable  leader,  Ilamilcar  Barcas,  to  cross  over  to  Spain,  and 
develo})  her  interests  there.  He  found  the  country  fertile  and 
ricli  in  minerals,  and,  thanks  to  the  vigor  and  wisdom  which  he 
showed  in  dealing  with  the  natives,  the  territory  within  which  the 
authority  of  Carthage  was  recognized  grew  with  extraordinary 
rapidity.  When  Ilamilcar  died  in  228,  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubal, 
who  succeeded  him,  carried  on  the  same  policy  of  developing 
the  country  and  with  equal  success.  The  Romans  were  too 
much  occupied  with  the  Gallic  wars  at  the  time  to  watch  closely 
the  course  of  events  in  Spain,  and  contented  themselves  with 


09 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


EXPA\810X    BEVOXB   THE   SEA 


93 


hiiuliii/^  Hasdruhal  in  22()  by  a  trealy  not  to  advance  hevond  the 
Eljro,  while  ^nviiig  liiiij  a  free  hand  to  the  south  of  that  river. 

167.  The  Character  of  Hannibal.  On  Hasdrubal's  death 
in  221  the  coinniand  of  tlie  army  [Kissed  to  Hannibal,  the  eldest 
son  of  Haiuilear,  who  was  at  this  time  in  his  twenty-seventh 
year.  Even  his  enemies  recognized  in  him  a  born  soldier  and 
leader.  As  Livy  says  of  Iiim,  ** Never  was  a  genius  l)etter  quali- 
fied for  two  most  contrar}  duties — obeying  and  commanding. 
.  .  .  He  combined  the  greatest  fearlessness  in  facing  perils 
with  the  greatest  wisdom  when  surrounded  by  them.  By  no 
hardshii)s  could  his  body  be  wearied  or  his  courage  l)roken. 
With  ecjual  indifference  he  bore  heat  and  cold.  The  amount 
which  he  ate  or  drank  was  determined  by  the  needs  of  nature 
and  not  by  the  cravings  of  the  palate.  He  had  no  fixed  periods 
by  day  or  by  night  for  working  or  sleeping.  The  time  which 
was  left  him  after  finishing  his  work,  he  gave  to  sleep.  Sleep 
he  did  not  woo  on  a  soft  couch,  nor  in  a  quiet  spot,  but  often 
you  woul<l  sec  lii'u  with  his  soldier's  cloak  over  him  lying  on  the 
ground  among  the  guards  and  outposts  of  his  forces.  He  was 
tlie  first  to  enter  battle  and  the  last  man  to  leave,  when  battle 
had  l>een  joined." 

168.  Immediate  Cause  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  One 
city  to  the  south  of  the  Ebro  had  not  acce[)ted  the  ruk^  of  Hanni- 
bal—the town  of  Saguntum.  This  city  was  under  the  pro- 
tection of  liome  and  in  case  of  war,  Roman  trooi)s  might  at  any 
moment  enter  Carthaginian  territory  through  this  gateway. 
Hannibal  saw  that  he  nmst  take  it.  He  found  a  })retext,  at- 
tacked Saguntum,  and,  after  a  hard  ::iege  of  eight  months,  took 
it.  Carthage  ratified  his  course,  and  Rome  declared  war  against 
her. 

169.  Hannibal's  March  into  Italy  in  218  B.C.  The  Ro- 
man plan  of  campaign  was  comprehensive.  It  included  the  simul- 
taneous invasion  of  Spain  and  Africa.  But  Hannibal  did  not 
give  the  Romans  time  to  i)ut  it  into  execution.  Assembling  an 
army  at  his  capital.  New  Carthage,  in  the  spring  of  218,  he 
boldly  set  out  to  invade  Italy  by  land.     It  was  a  plan  which  only 


a  Hannibal,  a  Caesar,  or  a  NajKileon  could  have  conceived  or 
carried  out.     It  in\ohed  taking  a  large  army  with  all   its  sup- 
plies, its  equipment,  and  beasts  of  burden  along  almost  the  entire 
eastern  coast  (jf  Spain  and  through  southern  Gaul.     It  involved 
thecrosshigof  the  swift  Rhone  in  little  boats,  and  the  passage  of 
the  Ali)s  in  the  late  autumn.     As  soon  as  he  crossed  the  Ebro, 
Hannibal  was  in  hostile  territory,  and  from  that  point  on  he  had 
to  make  his  way  by  jiersuasion  or  by  force  of  arms  until  lie  entered 
northern  Italy.     At  the  Rhone  he  found  a  large  force  of  the  natives 
collected  on  the  eastern  bank  to  prevent  his  passage,  but  he  sent 
a  detachment  of  his  troops  across  at  a  point  higher  up  the  stream, 
where  the  water  was  shallower,  took  the  enemy  by  surprise  in  the 
rear,  and  brought  his  soldiers  over  in  canoes  and  his  elephants 
on  huge  rafts.     After  having  received  this  salutary  lesson  the 
barbarians  did  not  molest  him  again  until  he  reached  the  moun- 
tains.    The  i)assage  of  the  Alps  was  attended  by  untold  diffi- 
culties.    "Tlie  paths  w^ere  narrow  and  rough,  and  flanked  with 
precipices,  and  at  every  movement  which  tended  to  throw  the 
line  into  disorder,  large  numbers  of  the  beasts  of  burden  were 
hurled  down  the  steeps  with  their  loads  on  their  backs.     Mean- 
while the  Gauls  from  their  vantage-ground  above  moved  aloncr 
tlie  slopes  parallel  with  the  army  below,  and  bv  rolling  down 
boulders,  or  throwing  stones,  reduced  the  troops  to  a  state  of 
utmost  confusion  and  danger."     At  one  point  the  path  was  too 
narrow  for  the  elephants  and  beasts  of  burden,  and  with  in- 
finite toil   his   troops  constructed  a  road  along  the  face  of  the 
precipice.     They  found  the  summit  covered  with  snow  and  bare 
of  trees  and  vegetation.     Battling  their  way  down  the  southern 
slopes   against   heavy  snow-storms,  exhausted   by  cold,  fatigue, 
and  hunger,  the  troops  at  last  reached  the  plains  of 'northern 
Italy.     The  passage  of  the  Alps  had  occupied  fifteen  days;  the 
entire  march  from  New  Carthage  five  months,  and  on  the\vay 
the  army  had  been  cut  down  from  fifty  thousand  infantrv  and 
nine  thousand  cavalry  to  twenty  thousand  infantry  and  six'thou- 
sand  cavalry. 


94 


ROMAN    HISTOP^' 


170.  Battles  on  the  Ticinus  218,  on  the  Trebia  218, 
and  near  Lake  Trasimene  217  B.  C.  I'he  Roiiuiils  were 
taken  by  siirijri.se;  their  cavalry  was  routed  on  the  l)anks  of  the 
Ticinus;  twenty  thousand  of  their  sohhers  were  caught  in  a  tra}) 
and  fell  in  the  f»attlc  on  the  Trel)ia;and  the  army  of  Flaniinius, 
enticed  into  a  narrow  valley  near  Lake  Trasinune,  and  envel- 
ojied  in  a  mist  so  tliick  that  the  Roman  soldiers  ccnjjd  not  tell 
friend  from  foe,  was  com[)letcly  annihilated. 

171.  Q.  Fabius  Maximus.  The  news  of  the  hatlle  of  Lake 
Trasimene  made  a  deep  impression  at  Rome,  and  the  jx'ople 
chose  a  dictator,  Q.  Fahius  ALiximus,  who  adopted  an  entirely 
new  j)oliey.  Without  offering  Hannibal  battle,  he  hovered  in 
his  neighl>orhood,  occupied  the  points  of  vantage,  and  cut  off 
his  foraging  parties.  This  plan  of  campaign  was  little  to  the 
taste  of  the  Roman  p(»pnla(«',  who  nicknamcMl  Fabius  "Cunc- 
tator,"  or  **the  Laggard,"  and  insistccl  that  more  vigorous  meas- 
ures should  be  taken  against  the  enemy. 

172.  Cannae,  216  B.  C.  Accordingly,  in  the  s})ring  of  21(> 
the  new  consuls,  L.  Aemilius  Pauhis  and  ('.  Terentius  Varro, 
set  out  with  an  army  of  eiglity  thousjind  inianlry  and  six 
thousand  cavalry, almost  double  the  lone  of  Ilamiilial,  t(»  crush 
the  invader  once  for  all.  They  found  liini  at  (Jeruniiim,  near 
the  nortliern  l)order  of  Apulia.  Their  ex|)erience  at  the  I'rebia 
and  Lake  Trasimene  had  led  them  to  dread  his  ruses,  and, 
when  the  Cartliaginians,  not  long  after  their  arrival,  broke  camp, 
the  Romans,  fearing  another  traj),  made  no  move,  until,  to 
tlieir  astonishment,  thev  found  that   Hannibal  had  marched  to 

■*  ■«■■ 

Canna'  and  seized  their  supplies.  They  w  ere  forced  to  fight  or 
to  retire  in  the  face  of  the  enemy.  They  chose  the  former  alter- 
native and  joined  battle  with  Hannibal  at  ( "anuie,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Aufidus.  On  each  side  the  cavalry  was  |)laced  on  the 
wings  and  the  infantry  in  the  centre,  l)Ut  tlie  Carthaginian 
centre  was  weak  and  gave  way,  as  Hannil)al  intended  it  to  do, 
before  the  on<1;iught  (»f  the  heavy  Roman  formation.  The 
very  succc^.^  ui  the  Rcjmans  ])roved  to  be  their  undoing,  for  in 
pursuing  its  opponents  the  Roman   infantry  lost  its  formation. 


» I 


EXPANSION    BEYOND    THE   SEA 


95 


and  advanced  so  far  as  to  expose  its  right  flank  to  the  Libyan 
infantry,  while  in  the  meantime  the  heavy-armed  Carthaginian 
cavalry  circled  about  the  Roman  army  and  attacked  it  in  the 
rear.  The  legions  were  now^  exposed  to  attack  on  three  sides; 
a  strong  south  wind  drove  the  dust  in  the  faces  of  the  soldiers, 


the  sun  shone  in  their  eyes,  and  their  close  formation  prevented 
them  from  using  their  weapons  effectively.  Of  the  seventy-five 
thousand  Romans  who  took  part  in  the  battle  a  bare  three 
thousand  escaped  l)y  fiight,  with  their  leader  Varro.  Hannibal 
lost  about  six  thousand  men. 


9G 


ROMW    FT T STORY 


EXPAXSTOX    BEYOND   THE    SEA 


97 


173.  The  War  in  Italy  from  216  to  211  B.C.    The  victory 

of  the  ('artliagiiiiaiis  chd  not  turn  northern  iinel  central  Ital}', 
nor  even  the  Greek  coast  towns  in  southern  Italv,  from  their 
loyal  sui)i)ort  of  K(jnie,  hut  many  of  the  Italian  communities 
in  the  South  went  over  to  the  side  of  Hannibal  after  the  battle 
of  Cannje,  and  for  the  next  fi\«'  \('ars  it  was  the  first  object  of 
the  Romans  to  recover  these  rel)ellious  towns  and  to  carry  out 
the  Fabian  i)olicy  of  weakcnin^i:  the  force  of  Hannil)al  and  of 
C'Uttin^^  off  his  supplies.  In  siu'te  of  some  serious  reverses,  tliese 
tactics  were  in  the  main  su».ivx>ful.  Casilinum  and  Arpi  were 
retaken  and  in  212  the  siejije  of  Capua  began.  Hannibal  came 
to  its  relief,  but  he  could  not  raise  the  blockade.  He  marched 
north  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome,  hoi)ing  in  this  way  to  draw  the 
besieging  forces  away  from  Capua,  but  recruits  flocked  into 
Rome.  Hannibal's  army  was  not  well  provided  with  machines 
for  a  siege,  his  cavalry — the  strongest  i)art  of  his  force — vviis  of 
little  use  in  such  an  enterprise,  and  he  was  forced  to  withdraw, 
without  either  taking  Rome  or  relieving  his  allies  in  Campania. 
Weakened  by  the  long  siege,  and  reduced  to  the  direst  straits  by 
hunger,  Capua  fell  in  211.  The  Romans  inflicted  such  a  i)unish- 
ment  ujMjn  her  as  might  well  serve  to  deter  other  Italian  cities 
from  allying  themselves  witli  Hannibal.  Her  nobles  were  put 
to  death;  the  common  peo|)le  were  sold  as  slaves;  the  city  was 
deprived  of  her  constitution,  and  her  [)ublic  l)uildings  and  land 
were  api>ropriated  by  Rome. 

174.  The  War  in  Sicily  from  216  to  210  B.C.    But  the 

fate  of  Hannil)al  was  really  decided  outside  of  Italy — in  Sicily, 
Macedonia,  and  S|)ain.  The  death  in  216  of  Hiero  of  Syracuse, 
tile  faithful  friend  and  allv  of  Rome,  was  a  severe  blow  to  the 
Romans.  He  had  loyally  helf>ed  them  in  fair  weather  and  in 
foul.  After  his  death  Syracuse  hesitated  for  a  time,  but  ulti- 
mately threw  in  her  lot  w  ith  Carthage.  Her  example  was  fol- 
lowed l)y  Agrigentum  and  many  other  Sicilian  towns.  In  214, 
IVIarcellus,  tiie  Roman  conunander,  appeared  before  Syracuse, 
and  l>egaii  the  siege  of  the  city  by  land  and  sea.  Forts  and  walls 
afl'ordcd  it  admirable  i)rotection;  a  Carthaginian  army  and  fleet 


i 


came  to  its  sui)[)(M-l,  but  the  city  foun<l  its  most  elfective  defense  in 
the  ingemiity  of  Archimedes,  the  great  mathematician  of  Syra- 
cuse. He  invented  catapults  wliich  hurled  great  stones  upon 
the  decks  of  the  Roman  ships  and  sunk  them,  Imge  cranes  with 
grai)pling  hooks  which  seized  the  enemv's  vessels  by  the  bows 
and  overturned  them,  and  he  even  set  their  ships  on  fire,  if  we 


STORMING    A    TOWN;    llELIKF    FROM    TRAJAN 's    COLUMN 

may  Ix'lievc^  the  story,  with  immense  burning  glasses.  For 
two  y(<ars  the  siege  was  carried  on  without  avail,  but  in  212 
Marcellus,  taking  advantage  of  the  festival  of  Artemis,  caught 
the  defenders  of  the  city  off  their  guard,  and  took  it.  The  con- 
(juest  of  the  rest  of  Si(  ily  (juickly  followed,  and  in  210  the  Cartha- 
ginians had  been  entirely  driven  from  the  island. 

175.  Philip  of  Macedon  Allies  himself  with  Hannibal  in 

215  B.C.  Hannibal's  success  at  Cannie,  whicli  had  brought  so 
many  towns  in  southern  Italy  over  to  his  side,  also  led  Philip  V 
of  Macedon  to  listen  favorably  to  the  })roposals  of  the  Cartha- 
ginians. He  agreed  to  sui)port  them  in  Italy,  provided  Corcyra 
and  the  Roman  towns  on  the  coast  of  Illyria  should  be  turned 
over  to  him  in  case  of  success,  but  the  danger  of  an  invasion  of 
Italy  by  thc^  Macedonians  the  Romans  cleverly  averted  by  form- 
ing an  alliance  witli  the  Greek  states  which  were  hostile  to  Mace- 
donia. This  coalition  kept  l*hilip  out  of  Italy,  and  took  his  un- 
divided attention  for  ten  vears. 


'Ki 


ROMW    HI  STORY 


173.  The  War  in  Italy  from  216  to  211  B.C.     The  vicion 

of  till'  ('arlliaj^iiii;iii^  ilid  mil  turn  iKH'tlici-n  ami  central  Italv, 
nor  ivrii  the  (ireek  eoasl  towns  in  xnitliern  Italy,  from  their 
Icnal  suj»j>ort  of  Home,  hut  many  of  the  Italian  eomuiunilies 
in  the  South  went  ov<>r  to  the  side  of  Ilaimihal  after  the  haltle 
«>f  Canna*,  ami  for  the  next  fi\<'  \'eai-s  it  was  the  first  <»hjeet  (.'f 
the  ilomans  to  i-  i-  these  rel»elliou>  to\siis  ami  to  carry  out 

the  l''al)ian  poliey  of  weakeninjx  the  force  of  IIannil)al  ami  of 
cutting!:  off  his  su|)|)lic>.  In  spite  of  sonic  serious  reverses,  these 
tactics  were  in  the  main  succe»fnL  (  asihnum  ami  \\\n  were 
retaken  and  in  212  the  sie;,^'  c.f  Cajiua  be^jjan.  Hannibal  eauie 
to  its  relief,  hut  he  could  not  raise  the  blockade.  He  inarched 
north  to  the  \cry  ^^ates  of  I{ome,  hoitin;^-  in  this  way  to  draw  the 
bcsi(Mfiu»r  fon-t-s  a\\n\  from  ('apua,  but  recruits  flocke<I  into 
Kome.  Hanmbar.>>  army  was  not  well  provided  with  m;ichines 
for  a  siei^e,  liis  cavalry — the  stronj^^-st  part  of  his  font — was  of 
little  use  in  such  an  enterprise,  and  he  was  forci^d  to  withdraw, 
without  eitlier  taking"  Rome  or  rclicviu;,^  his  allies  in  Campania. 
Weakencfl  by  the  lonji;  sie^^e,  and  reduced  to  the  direst  straits  by 
hunger,  ( 'a|)Ua  fell  in  21 1.  The  Romans  inflicted  sucli  a  jmnish- 
ment  upon  her  as  mi^dit  well  serve  to  deter  other  Italian  cities 
from  allyin*::  themselves  with  Hannibal.  Her  nobles  were  put 
to  deatli;  the  common  pi'ople  were  sold  as  slaves;  the  eit\'  was 
<lcpri\ed  of  her  constitution,  and  her  public  luiildin^rs  and  land 
were  appro|)riatcd  by  Rome. 

174.  The  War  in  Sicily  from  216  to  210  B.C.     But  the 

fati  of  Hannibal  was  really  decided  outside  of  Italy-~in  Sicily, 
Macedonia,  and  Spain  Tlie  d«'ath  in  21(>  «»f  Hitro  of  Syracuse, 
tlie  f.iithful  friend  and  allv  of  R<»me,  was  a  .severe  blow  to  the 
Romans.  He  had  loyally  helped  them  in  fair  weather  and  in 
toul.  After  liis  deatli  Syraeus*'  hesitated  for  a  time,  but  ulti- 
mately tlu-eu-  in  lier  lot  witli  Carthage.  Her  e.\ample  was  fol- 
lowed l)y  A*i:ri^^entum  and  many  other  Sicilian  towns.  Tn  214. 
Marcelhis,  the  Roman  commander,  ajtpearcd  before  S\raeusc, 
and  bci^-an  the  sietreof  the  eify  by  hnid  and  sea.  Forts  and  walls 
alTorded  it    ehnirable  protection ;  a  rartlui^inian  armv  and  fleet 


f 


KXPWSIOV    HF.VOXD    TITK    SKA 


97 


came  to  its  support,  but  the  city  found  its  most  eU'ective  defen.se  in 
the  in^rcniiity  of  Archimedes,  the  oreat  mathematician  of  Syra- 
cuse. He  invented  catapults  which  hurled  oreat  stones  upon 
the  decks  of  the  Roman  ships  and  >^ni\k  them,  huo-e  cranes  with 
i;rapplin^  hooks  which  seized  the  enemy's  vessels  by  the  bows 
and  overturned  them,  and  he  even  set  their  ships  on  fire,  if  W(i 


^iUllMlSr.    A     IUW.n;     Ul.Lll.l      lltUM    THAJW's    (  Ol.UMN- 

may  believe  the  story,  with  immense  !inrni!i<^-  olasses.  For 
two  years  the  sie^-(>  was  carried  on  wilhout  avail,  but  in  212 
Marcellus,  takiiii,^  advantage  of  the  festival  of  .Vrtemis,  eau^dit 
the  defenders  of  the  city  off  their  n-uard,  and  took  it.  I'hc  con- 
fjuest  of  the  rest  of  Sic  ily  (piickly  followed,  and  in  210  the  Cartha- 
^ijiians  had  been  entirely  driven  from  the  island. 

175.  Philip  of  Macedon  Allies  himself  with  Hannibal  in 

215  B.C.  Hannibars  success  at  ranujv,  which  had  brouirht  so 
many  towns  in  southern  Italy  over  to  his  side,  also  led  Philip  V 
of  Afaccdon  to  listen  favorably  to  the  j)roposa.ls  of  the  Tartha- 
^nnians.  He  a<!:ree(l  to  support  tliem  in  Italy,  provided  Corcyra 
and  the  Roman  towns  on  tlie  coast  of  Illyria  should  l)e  turned 
over  to  him  in  cas(>  of  success,  but  the  dan^^er  of  an  invasion  of 
Italy  by  the  Macedonians  the  Itomans  cleverly  averted  by  torm- 
iuf^an  alliance  with  the  Cireck  stat(\s  which  were  hostile  to  Mace- 
donia. This  coalition  kept  Philip  out  of  It.dy,  and  took  his  un- 
divided attention  for  ten  vears. 


m 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


EXPANSION   BEYOND  THE   SEA 


99 


176.  The  Battle  on  the  Metaurus  in  207  B.  C.  In  Spain 
the  slru<>j^He  ht'twteii  the  liomans  and  the  Carthaginians  was  a 
bitter  one.  ILisdrubal,  the  l)n>ther  of  Haimibal,  attacked  sepa- 
rately and  defeated  the  two  Uoiiuin  armies  under  Pubhus  and 
Gnaeiis  Scij)io,  and  ehidiug  young  Pubhus  Cornehus  Seipio,  wlio 
hiid  been  sent  to  Spain  at  tlie  liead  of  new  levies,  set  out  on  the 
long  overland  march  toward  Italy  to  relieve  his  brother.  He 
crossed  tlie  Alps  in  the  spring  of  207  and  descended  into  Italy 
with  an  army  of  over  fifty  thousand  men.  The  fortunes  of 
Rome  seemed  at  their  lowest  ebb.  Her  own  population  was 
nearly  exhausted;  her  allies  were  none  too  loyal;  her  land  liad 
almost  passed  out  of  cultivation,  and  famine  stared  her  in  the 
face.  But  the  lioman  steadiness  in  a  crisis,  a  piece  of  good  for- 
tune, and  the  brilliant  move  of  the  consul,  Gains  Claudius,  saved 
the  (lav.     He  had  been  sent  south  to  watch  Hannibal,  and  for- 

4 

tnnately  the  nu'ssengers  whom  Hasdrubal  had  despatched  post- 
haste to  apprise  his  brotluT  of  his  aj)proach  fell  into  the  hands 
of  ( laudius.  Withdrawing  the  greater  part  of  his  force  without 
exciting  tlie  suspicion  of  Hannibal,  he  sent  it  with  all  speed  to 
reinforce  his  colleague  Livius  in  the  North.  The  two  armies 
effected  a  junction,  fell  upon  Hasdrubal  on  the  banks  of  the 
Metaurus  near  Sena  (tallica,  routed  his  army  completely,  and 
killed  Ilasdrul>al.  His  head  severed  from  the  body,  carried 
off  by  tiie  victorious  Ronuin  army,  and  cast  into  Hannibal's 
camp,  informed  the  Carthaginian  commander  of  his  brother's 
fate  and  of  his  own  desperate  situation. 

177.  Publius  Cornelius  Seipio.  Meanwhile  Publius  Cor- 
nelius Seipio  had  made  u|)  for  his  l)Iunder  in  allowing  Hasdrubal 
to  slii)  past  liini  by  bringing  the  cam])aign  in  Spain  to  a  brilliant 
end.  In  I'OO  he  retiu-ned  to  Home  and  claimed  without  boast- 
ing that  he  had  fought  against  four  generals  and  four  victorious 
armies,  and  liad  not  left  n  single  Carthaginian  soldier  in  Spain. 
His  success  in  Spain,  his  |)opularity  with  the  masses,  and  his 
family  connection  won  him  an  election  to  the  consulship  for  the 
following  \ear.  Rome  had  at  last  found  in  him  a  worthy  leader 
to  pit  against  the  great  ( 'arthaginian  captain  who  for  thirteen 


f 

i: 

i 
t 


years  had  worsted  every  Roman  general  sent  against  him,  from 
the  impetuous  Flaminins  to  the  cautious  Fal)ius.  Polybius, 
who  lived  not  long  after  Seipio,  might  well  say  of  him  that  "he 
was  perliaps  the  most  illustrious  man  of  those  born  before  the 
present  generation." 

178.  He  Proposes  to  Invade  Africa.  Upon  taking  up 
his  office  he  showed  his  daring  and  originality  l)y  i)roposing,  not 
that  the  Romans  should  bend  their  energies  to  crush  Hannibal 
in  Italy,  but  that  they  should  invade  Africa  and  force  the  home 
government  to  recall  Hannibal.  His  proposal  was  bitterly  o])- 
posed  l)y  the  timid,  who  feared  the  presence  of  Hannibal  in  Italy, 
by  the  conservative  leaders,  like  Fabius,  who  were  naturally  dis- 
trustful of  so  bold  an  enterprise,  and  by  the  senate,  which  dread- 
ed the  ascendency  of  one  num. 

179.  Preliminary  Movements  in  Africa  in  204-  203  B.C. 
He  received  from  the  govenunent,  therefore,  only  a  half-hearted 
support  for  his  enterprise,  but  suj)])len»enting  the  insufficient 
force  which  the  state  allowed  him  with  the  recruits  who  flocked 
to  his  standard,  Seipio  crossed  over  from  Sicily  in  204  and  ef- 
fected a  landing  at  Utica.  The  (Carthaginian  army  under  Has- 
drubal Gisgo  and  the  Xumidians  under  their  king  Syi)hax  were 
defeated  in  turn,  and  the  Carthaginians  were  forced  to  sue  for 
])eace.  One  of  the  conditions  insisted  on  by  Seipio  was  the 
recall  of  Hannibal.  To  this  the  Carthaginian  senate  agreed,  and 
Hannibal  with  his  troops  landed  at  Leptis. 

180.  Battle  of  Zama  in  202  B.  C.  But  the  return  of 
Hannibal  inspired  the  Carthaginians  with  courage  again,  and 
they  reoi)ened  hostilities.  Seipio  thereupon  advanced  farther 
into  Carthaginian  territory.  His  army  had  been  meanwhile 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  adhesion  of  Masinissa,  the  rival  of 
Syphax  for  the  throne  of  Xumidia.  The  combined  forces  met 
Hannibal  near  Zama,  and  about  five  days'  march  from  Carthage. 
Hannibal's  elephants  charged  harmlessly  through  the  wide  alleys 
which  Seipio  had  left  between  his  columns  for  their  passage, 
or  were  turned  by  the  Romans  against  the  Punic  cavalry;  the 
Roman  veterans  broke  the  enemy's  line;  the  cavalry  of  ^lasinissa 


IIH) 


ROMW    HISTORY 


I'lieirclecl  the  ciutin,  and  the  nnil  of  tlu  T  irlha<!:iiiians  \v;i>  com- 
j)lete.     Hannibal  escaj)c(l  to  HadrunKtuni. 

181.  The  Treaty  of  Peace  in  201  B.C.  Alter  this  defeat 
Carthage  gave  up  the  struggle.  She  agreed  to  relinciuish  Spain, 
and  not  to  make  war  at  all  outside  of  Afriea  and  in  Africa  only 
with  Uonie's  (oMseiit,  and  to  surrender  her  fleet.  She  bound 
herself  also  to  mv  within  fifty  \'ears  a  sum  of  ten  thousand 
talents,  or  about  $12,000,000.  To  ensure  the  observance  (»f  these 
conditions,  liostages  were  exacted  of  her,  and  Xuniidia,  under 
Masinissa,  Konie's  efficient  all} ,  was  made  an  inde[)endent  state 
to  watch  all  her  movements. 

182.  How  Rome  Acquired  Supremacy  in  the  West.  Tlie 
unification  of  Italy  was  the  first  step  in  the  develoi)ment  of  the 
P.oman  empire.  The  second  ^tage  came  to  an  end  with  the 
defeat  of  Carthage.  Tlie  control  of  the  western  Mediterranean,  to 
wliieh  Home's  geographical  position  and  the  fact  that  her  harbors 
faced  the  we>t  ]>re<lcstine<l  her,  was  now  assured.  Towarii 
tliis  end  she  had  Ijccu  driven  more  by  the  force  of  circumstances 
tlian  l>y  the  political  and  conmiercial  ambitit)ns  of  her  people. 
To  protect  the  southern  coast  of  Italy  she  opix^cd  the  growth  of 
Carthaginian  power  in  Sicily,  ;ind  finally  droVc  the  ( 'arthaginians 
out  of  the  island.  The  same  mstinct  of  self-lJreservation  led 
her  later  to  exj)el  tliem  from  Sardinia  also.  At  this  point 
l)otli  peoples  opened  their  eye>  to  the  fact  that  tlie  combat  was  a 
life-and-deatli  struggle  for  sui)remacy  in  the  West.  The  fever- 
ish eagerness  witli  which  Carthage  souglit  to  l)uild  up  a  new 
colonial  emj»ire  in  Spain  seems  to  indicate  that  she  first  saw  that 
the  conflict  was  inevitaltle  and  that  defeat  meant  ruin.  Thus, 
starting  with  the  sole  object  of  ensuring  the  integrity  of  Italy, 
with  no  large  schemes  of  conciuest  beyond  the  sea,  Home  drifted 
into  the  struggle  for  supremacy,  and  the  outcome  left  her  mis- 
tress of  the  West. 

183.  The  Relations  of  Rome  with  the  East.  Now  that 
the  power  (»f  her  only  rival  was  broken,  and  her  authority  reeog- 
ni/.ed  in  tliis  (juarter  of  the  world,  tlie  prol)lem  before  lierwas  to 
pacify,  to  consolidate,  and  to  civilize  her  newly  aenuired  territory; 


KXPAXSION    BEVOXI)    TIIR    SEA 


101 


but  the  situation  in  the  Pkst  claimed  her  immediate  attention,  and 
diverted  her  from  this  work  before  it  was  actually  begun.  With 
the  development  of  the  Eastern  (juestion  begins  the  third  stage 
in  Home's  career  of  expansion.  In  the  political  drama  which 
comes  to  an  end  with  the  defeat  of  Carthage  the  action  is  com- 
j>aratively  .simple.  Tlie  minor  role  which  Syracuse  or  Capua 
plays  never  really  distracts  our  attention  from  the  two  leading 
characters,  Home  and  Carthage.  In  the  East  the  movement 
is  much  more  com|)lex.  Home,  ^lacedonia,  Syria,  Egypt  and 
a  [lost  of  small  states  are  all  concerned,  and  for  the  simple  motives 
of  sclf-[)reservation  or  commercial  and  political  ambition  which 
actuated  Home  and  Carthage  we  find  substituted  a  large  number 
of  pf)litieal,  personal,  and  even  sentimental  considerations. 

184.  Macedonia,  Egypt,  and  Syria.  The  far-reaching  em- 
|)ire  of  the  East  which  Alexander  left  at  his  death  in  322  b.  c. 
broke  u))  into  the  llircc  great  kingdoms  of  Macedonia,  Egypt, 
and  Syria.  Macedonia  controlled  the  gnniter  part  of  the  Balkan 
peninsula,  Thessaly  and  some  of  the  smaller  states  of  Greece. 
Egyj)t,  besides  her  territory  in  northern  Africa,  controlled  Juda?a 
and  Plioenicia,  a  strip  of  land  along  the  coast  of  Asia  ^Minor,  and 
I'hracc,  and  most  of  the  islands  in  the  eastern  ^Mediterranean. 
The  authority  of  Syria  was  recognized  in  the  interior  of  southern 
Asia  Minor,  along  the  eastern  Mediterranean  coast  from  Tyre 
to  Seleucia,  and  in  tlie  country  to  th(*  east  through  the  valley  of 
the  Eu})hrat(\s  and  Tigris  as  far  as  the  borders  of  Media. 

185.  Ambitious  Designs  of  Macedonia  and  Syria.  The 
trouble  in  the  East  began  in  205,  on  the  death  of  Ptolemv 
Philopator  of  Egypt,  who  left  the  throne  to  his  infant  son.  There- 
upon Philip  of  INIacedon  and  Antiochus  III  of  Syria  seized  the 
opportunity  to  (^xtend  their  territory  at  tlie  ex|)ense  of  Egypt. 
Philip  directed  his  efforts  against  the  P]gyptian  dependencies  on 
the  Aegean  coast,  and  against  the  coast  towns  in  southern  Thrace 
and  on  the  Hellespont.  Hhodes,  which  was  a  most  flourishing 
and  independent  commercial  state,  was  unwilling  that  this  great 
thoroughfare  should  fall  into  his  hands,  and  made  war  upon  him, 
and  both  Egy])t  and  Hhodes  asked  Home  to  intervene.     Rome 


102 


ROM  ^\    HISTORY 


EXPANSION  BEYOND   THE   SEA 


103 


was  only  too  williiitr  to  do  so,  because  of  the  alliance  which 
Macedonia  had  a  few  years  hefore  iiiade  with  Hannibal,  and  on 
account  of  the  threatening  growth  of  Macedonian  power. 


\lii.nx'Ch'i 


OREECE  AND  ASIA  MINOR  !    THE  WAR8  WITH    THE    MACEDONIANS  AND  ANTIOCHU8 

186.  Second  Macedonian  War,  200-  196  B.C.  Macedonia 
refased  to  make  the  concessions  to  Egypt  and  Rhodes  which 
Rome  pro|)os(Ml,  and  Koine  declared  war  upon  Philip.  Antio- 
clnis  was  indufcd  to  sever  iiis  comiection  with  Philip,  and  the 
successes  of  tlie  Koinans  during  the  first  vear  of  the  war  l)rou<rht 
tlie  Aetolians,  the  Achaian  league,  the  Boeotians,  and  the  Spar- 
tans over  to  tlieir  side;  and  it  \va^  largely  <lu«'  to  the  suj)port  of 
the  Aetolian  cnvahy  that  th<y  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
Phili])  in  11)7  n.  C.  at  (  ynosccphahe,  a  range  of  round-topped 
hills  in  Thessaly. 

187.  Treaty  of  Peace,  196  B.  C.  The  treaty  which  the 
Roman  leader,  Flaniininus,  and  a  senatorial  commission  forced 
Philip  to  >iun  imj)osrd  liard  conditions  u])on  liim.  lie  agreed  to 
relin(juish  all  conquered  territory,  to  grant  the  Greeks  their 
freedom,  to  surnnder  his  fleet,  to  pay  a  war  indemnity,  and  to 


I 

I 

f 

I 

i 

1 


r 


direct  his  foreign  poricy  in  accordance  with  the  wishes  of  the  Ro- 
mans. Rome  annexed  no  territory,  established  no  garrisons  in 
the  country  of  her  late  enemy,  and  left  Macedonia  and  the  Greek 
states  free  to  manage  their  own  internal  affairs.  Polybius  gives 
us  a  graphic  account  of  the  way  in  which  the  proclamation  of 
inde])endence  was  received  by  the  Greeks  at  the  Isthmian  Games 
in  July,  196  b.  c.  "While  people  were  still  in  a  state  of  un- 
certainty, all  the  world  being  assembled  on  the  stadium  to  watch 
the  games,  the  herald  came  forward,  and  having  proclaimed 
silence  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  delivered  the  following  procla- 
mation: 'The  senate  of  Rome  and  Titus  Quinctius  [Flaniininus], 
proconsul  and  imperator,  having  conquered  King  Philip  and 
the  Macedonians  in  war,  declare  the  following  peoples  free, 
without  garrison,  or  tribute,  in  full  enjoyment  of  the  laws 
of  their  res|)ective  countries;  namely,  Corinthians,  Phocians, 
Locrians,  Eulxeans,  Achaians  of  Phiotis,  Magnesians,  Thes- 
salians,  Perrhtebians.'  Now,  as  the  first  words  of  the  jjroc- 
lamation  were  the  signal  for  a  tremendous  outburst  of  clapping, 
some  of  the  people  could  not  hear  it  at  all,  and  some  wanted  to 
hear  it  again;  but  the  majority,  feeling  incredulous,  and  thinking 
that  they  heard  the  words  in  a  kind  of  dream,  so  utterly  unex- 
pected was  it,  another  impulse  induced  every  one  to  shout  to 
the  herald  and  trumpeter  to  come  into  the  middle  of  the  stadium 
and  repeat  the  words.  .  .  .  But  when  the  herald,  having  ad- 
vanced into  the  middle  of  the  crowd,  once  more,  by  his  trumpeter, 
hushed  the  clamor  and  repeated  exactly  the  same  proclamation 
as  before,  there  was  such  an  outbreak  of  clapping  as  is  difficult 
to  convey  to  the  imagination  of  my  readers  at  this  time, — and 
after  the  games  were  over,  in  the  extravagance  of  their  joy, 
they  nearly  killed  Flaniininus  by  the  exhibition  of  their  grati- 
tude. Some  wanted  to  look  him  in  the  face  and  call  him  their 
preserver;  others  were  eager  to  touch  his  hand;  most  threw 
garlands  and  fillets  upon  him;  until  between  them  they  nearly 
crushed  him  to  death." 

188.  The  Reasons  for  Rome's  Generous  Policy.    The 
self-restraint  which  Rome  showed   in  her  arrangements  with 


104 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


Macf.loniu  and  her  «:('i!cn)iis  trealnient  of  tlic  Greek  states  may 
be  tnieed  partly  to  sentiiiieiital,  partly  to  praetieal,  eoiisitleratioiis. 
The  Romans  admired  the  (ireeks;  they  l)elieved  in  their  capac- 
ity for  self-government,  and  tliey  had  repeatedly  promised 
to  [live  the  Greek  states  tlieir  fnvdoin.  Flamininiis,  in  ])articuUir, 
wlio  led  the  Roman  peace  commission,  showed  marked  sym- 
I)athv  witli  the  (ireek  passion  for  inde])en(k"nce.  The  hos- 
tilitv  to  an  Eastern  war  which  the  great  mass  of  the  common 
people  at  Rome  had  shown  at  the  ontset  also  [irol)ably  prevented 
tliegovermnent,at  the  close  of  the  war,  from  oc(iii)ying  territory 
which  might  involve  it  in  complications  in  the  fntiire.  In  fact, 
the  constant  (puirrels  between  the  several  (ireek  states  and 
leagues  might  well  deter  Rome-  fn.m  assuming  any  authority  and 
responsil)ility  in  that  ([uarter.  Finally,  if  the  integrity  of  Mace- 
donia was  res[)ected  she  could  ])rotect  l^onum  interests  against 
the  ( iauls  and  Thracian>,  while  the  (ireek  leagues  would  hold 
in  check  Macedonia's  ambitious  <lcsi'nis.  Tliese  various  con- 
siderations i)robal»ly  explain  Rome's  generous  treatment  of  her 
Greek  enemies  and  allies. 

189.  War  with  Antiochus  III,  192  -  189  B.C.  To  separate 
as  nnich  as  possible  the  interests  of  Antiochus  and  Philip,  and 
in  that  way  to  prevent  Syria  from  coming  to  the  help  of  Mace- 
d(mia,  the  Romans  had  aUowed  Antiochus  a  free  hand  in  his 
campaigns  against  the  Egyptian  dependencies  on  the  shore  of  tlie 
Aegean  Sea;  but  when  the  Aetolians  and  their  allies,  discon- 
tented witli  Piome's  considerate  treatment  of  Macedonia,  invited 
him  into  Greece,  and  ma<le  him  their  connnander-in-chief,  a 
force  was  promptly  sent  into  Tliessaly  under  \i\  Acilius  (ilabrio. 
Tlie  Syrian  king  made  a  stand  at  tlie  historic  pass  of  Thermopylae, 
was  defeated,  and  forced  to  retire  from  Euro])e. 

190.  Hannibal  and  Africanus  once  more  Brought  Face 
to  Face.  The  Romans  liad  now  made  uj)  tlieir  minds  to  humble 
Antim*hus.  They  may  have  been  led  to  follow  up  their  advan- 
tairc  at  once  bv  tlie  fact  that  their  old  enemy  Hannibal  was  one  of 
the  advisers  of  the  Syrian  king.  I  )riven  out  of  his  own  country  by 
the  hostility  and  the  jealousy  of  the  Carthaginians,  he  had  taken 


EXPANSIOX   BEYOND    THE    SEA 


105 


refuge  at  the  court  of  Syria,  i)erliaps  hoping  that  through  her  he 
might  gratify  his  unwavering  hatred  of  Rome;  and  it  was  one  of 
tlie  strange  decrees  of  fate  tliat  this  war  brought  face  to  face  once 
more  the  two  great  leaders  of  the  Second  Punic  War.  The  leader 
of  the  Romans  in  the  Asiatic  campaign  chanced  to  be  L.  Cor- 
nelius Scipio,  but  he  was  allowed  to  assume-  command  only  on 
condition  that  he  should  be  governed  l)y  the  Jidvice  of  his  brother 
Africanus,  who  accompanied  him.  Unfortunately  for  Syria, 
Antiochus  could  not  grasp  the  comprehensive  })lans  of  Hannibal, 
or  would  not  follow  his  advice,  and  with  a  fatuity  which  is  almost 
incredible,  gave  up  the  strongly  fortified  Chersonese,  so  that  the 
Roman  army,  after  executing  safely  a  limg  march  through  Mace- 
donia and  Thrace,  entered  Asia  Minor  without  difficulty,  and 
coining  up  with  tlie  king  near  ^It  Sipylus,  utterly  destroyed  his 
forces  at  the  battle  of  ^Magnesia  in  the  year  11)0. 

191.  Treaty  of  Peace,  189  B.C.  When  tlic  ambassadors  of 
Antiochus  came  after  the  l)attle  to  karn  the  terms  which  the  Ro- 
mans would  allow  them,  Publius  Scipio  replie<l:  "lie  must  aban- 
don Euroi)e  altogether  and  all  of  Asia  this  side  of  the  Taurus,  the 
boundaries  to  be  fixed  hereafter;  he  must  surrender  all  the 
elephants  he  has,  and  such  number  of  shii)s  as  we  may  prescribe 
...  he  must  give  twenty  hostages  .  .  .  and  pay  for  the  cost  of 
the  present  war,  incurred  on  his  account,  five  hundred  Euboic 
talents  down  and  twenty-five  hundred  more  when  the  Senate 
ratifies   the    treaty;   and  tw^elve  thousand  more  within    tw^elve 

years." 

192.  Death  of  Hannibal  and  Scipio,  183  B.  C.  These  de- 
mands, which  were  ultimately  somewhat  increased,  Antiochus 
accepted.  llannil)al,  who  the  Romans  had  expected  would  fall 
into  their  hands,  fled  to  the  court  of  Bithynia,  but  six  years  later 
took  his  own  life,  to  escape  murder  at  the  hands  of  his  enemies. 
Strangely  enough,  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  died  in  the  same  year  at 
Liternum  in  Campania,  having  withdrawn  from  Rome  on  ac- 
count of  the  l)itter  attacks  made  upon  him  by  his  fellow-citizens. 

193.  Roman  Policy  in  Asia.  Even  at  the  close  of  the  war 
with  Antiochus  the  Romans  took  no  territory  for  themselves  and 


106 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


establishrd  no  •garrisons  in  Asia.  TIkv  followed  there  the  same 
policy  vvliich  thev  had  adopted  in  Africa  and  in  (Jrccce,  of  weak- 
ening the  stron*^  slates  and  >licn<^!hcning  the  weak  ones.  Syria 
was  robbed  of  so  \'dr<i;v  a  pari  of  her  territory  that  she  lost  com- 
pletely her  inij)ortan(('  as  a  Mediterranean  power.  While  on 
the  other  hand  llie  faithful  little  kingdom  of  Pergamum,  in 
northwestern  Asia  Minor,  strengthened  l)y  tlit'  addition  of 
Lydia,  Plirygia,  (aria,  and  a  |)arl  of  Painphylia,  was  set  uj>  as 
a  counterpoise  to  Svria,  just  as  the  kingdom  of  Numidia  had  been 
created  to  hold  Carthage  in  clieck. 

194.  Third  Macedonian  War,  171- 168  B.C.,  and  its  Re- 
sults. Macedonia  iii.ide  one  more  cflort  under  her  king  Perseus 
to  recover  lier  position,  but  was  licaten  at  tlic  battle  of  Pydna, 
and  lost  her  integrity  as  a  result  of  the  war.  Tlie  country  was 
divided  info  four  districts,  which  were  allowed  to  manage  their 
own  internal  affairs  Iml  not  to  make  war  or  jteaee.  lUyria,  too, 
which  had  sidc^l  with  I*ersens,  was  divided  into  three  separate; 
states.  The  other  states  and  the  individuals  who  had  es[)oused 
the  cause  of  Perseus  weic  treated  with  the  utmost  severity.  A 
thousand  Achaian>,  suspected  of  sympathy  with  him,  were 
transported  to  Italy  and  held  in  confinement  without  trial  for 
fuany  years.  Among  them  was  the  historian  Poly!>ius,  to  whose 
enforced  stay  in  Italy  we  i)rol)ably  (nve  his  account— the  most 
detailed  and  accurate  one  we  have —  of  the  events  of  this  period. 

195  Macedonia  Made  a  Province  in  146  B.  C.  The 
f)lan  of  isolating  l)ut  leaving  inde})cndent  the  newly  created. 
Macedonian  slates  did  not  work  as  well  as  a  similar  policy  had 
done  in  'Italy.  The  situation  inevitably  tempted  ambitious 
IVIacedonian  leaders  to  try  to  bring  about  a  reunion  of  the  four 
districts.  After  an  attempt  of  this  sort  had  been  made  by  a  cer- 
tain Andriscus,  the  senate  gave  up  the  plan,  and  made  Mace- 
donia a  province  like  Sicily  and  Spain. 

196.  Greece  Subdued  in  146  B.  C.  The  arrangement  in 
Greece  pro\ed  as  unsatisfactory  as  had  that  in  Macedonia.  The 
jealousy  which  the  different  states  felt  toward  one  another 
broke  out  in  148  into  ojien  war  between  the  Achaian  league  and 


KXPANRION   BEYOXT)   THE   SEA 


107 


Sparta,  and  the  Achaians  tried  to  mjike  Sparta  yield  to  their 
confederation.   When  Rome  intervened,  the  league,  forgetting  the 
severe  lesson  Avhich  the  Greeks  had  been  taught  after  the  third 
Macedonian    war,    boldly    challenged  her.     The   struggle  was 
short   and   decisive.      All   the   towns   which    had  taken    part 
in   the   movement  were   razed   to   the   ground.     Corinth,   the 
principal  town  of  the  h^ague,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  of  anti<iuity,  suffered  with  the  rest.     Polybius,  who  was 
an  eyewitness  of  its  destruction,  tells  us  that  ''the  incidents  of 
the  eai)ture  of  Corinth  were  melancholy.     The  soldiers  cared 
nolliing  for  the  works  of  art  and  the  consecrated  statues.     I 
saw  with  my  own  eyes  pictures  thrown  on  the  ground  and 
soldiers  playing  dice  on  them."     Many  of  the  statues  and  pic- 
tures were  taken  to  Rome  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  commander 
L.  Mummius,  an<l  Roman  ignorance  in  matters  of  art  is  well 
illustrated  l)y  Mummius's  stipulation  that,  if  any  of  the  works 
of  art  should  be  lost  in  transit,  "they  were  to  be  replaced  by 
others  of  c(iual  value."     The  people  of  Greece  were  left  nomi- 
nally free,  but  they  were  subject  to  Roman  taxation  and  were 
under  the  central  authority  of  the  Roman  governor  of  Macedonia. 

197.  The  Fate  of  Egypt.  Egypt,  the  third  of  the  great 
Oriental  ])owers  mentioned  above,  was  essentially  a  com- 
ni.M-cial  state,  and  had  not  assumed  the  aggressive  in  any  of 
the  (piarrels  which  embroiled  the  East.  In  fact,  she  found  it 
hard  to  keep  her  possessions  out  :)f  the  hands  of  the  rapacious 
Antiochus.  In  IDS  when  Rome  was  occupied  with  Philip  he 
seized  and  held  for  a  time  some  Egyptian  territory  in  Asia,  and 
later,  wIumi  Rome  was  at  war  with  Perseus,  the  Syrian  king  again 
tried'  to  add  to  his  empire  at  the  expense  of  Egypt.  Rome 
saved  her  from  spoliation,  however,  and  assumed  a  protectorate 
over  the  country  in  108. 

198.  The  Government  of  Sicily.  As  we  have  already 
noticed,  the  difficulties  in  Macedonia  and  Syria  prevented 
Rome  from  giving  her  undivided  attention  to  the  development 
of  the  territory  which  she  had  acquired  from  Carthage  as  a 
result  of  the  Punic  wars.     The  two  countries,  Sicily  and  Spain, 


108 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


which  fell  to  lu-r  as  the  heir  «»f  Carthage,  j)resented  very  difTereiit 
problems.  Sicily  had  a  well-establi.shed  civilization,  was  })eace- 
ful,  and  accepted  Kuuian  rule  without  (jueslion.  A  few  cohorts 
suificed  to  enforce  the  authority  of  the  praetor  who  governed 
the  island. 

199.  Spain  and  the  Lusitanians  under  Viriathus,  149  - 
139  B.C.  But  four  legions  had  to  he  stationed  in  Sj^ain,  and  for 
•seventy  years  the  {>eninsula  was  \hr  ^rcrio  <^\'  revolt  after  revolt. 
These  wars  were  <luc  partly  to  the  nutuiai  ulmh'  ot  the  Si)aniar(is 
to  throw  olF  the  Koman  yoke,  hut  more  to  the  had  faith  of  the 
Romans,  to  their  defective  administrative  system,  and  to  tlie 
incapacity  of  their  commanders  and  governors.  The  princi[)al 
leader  of  the  Spaniards  was  the  hrilliant,  chivalrous  Viriathus. 
Ilis  undying  liostility  to  the  Rortians  was  aroused  hy  (he  perfidy 
of  the  praetor,  Servius  Sulpicius  (Jalha.  In  KiO  n.  (\  tliis  officer 
had  massacred  seven  thousand  unarmed  Lusitanians  who  had 
surrendered  to  liim.  Viriathus,  one  of  tiie  prisoners,  escaped, 
and  !)eing  chosen  as  their  leader  by  his  countrymen,  hn'e(l  into 
the  mountains  tlie  lloman  commander  Vetilius,  who  was  sent 
to  ])ursuc  him,  an«l  cut  his  army  to  |)ieees.  A  little  later  an 
armv  of  four  thousand  men  wliieh  had  just  arrived  from  Rome 
was  destroved  bv  a  similar  strate^v.  For  three  years  the  Lusi- 
tanian  leader  overran  the  countrv  without  c-heek,  <lefcating  legion 
after  legion,  and  constantly  pushing  back  the  Koman  forces. 
Servilianus,  who  commanded  the  Romans  in  141,  was  signally 
defeated,  and  eoneluded  a  treaty  recognizing  Lusitania  as  an 
independent  state,  and  Viriathus  as  its  chief  magistrate.  But 
Cae[)io,  the  newly  a|>pointed  Roman  general,  tliough  he  was  the 
brother  of  Servilianus,  treacherously  broke  the  treaty,  and 
reopened  hostilities  against  the  Ijusitanian  chief. 

200.  The  Murder  of  Viriathus,  139  B.C.  Finding  him- 
self unal)le  to  cope  with  tlie  enemy  he  brought  the  war  to  an 
end  in  a  way  which  harmonized  well  with  the  treacherous 
methods  which  the  Romans  had  adoi)ted  in  all  their  dealings 
with  the  Lusitanians.  Ilis  o1)ject  was  accomplished  during 
an  interval  between  the  campaigns,   when  peace  negotiations 


EXPANSION    nEYoM)   THE    SEA 


109 


were  going  on.  The  story  is  t(»ld  by  Appian  in  The  War.s-  in 
8/)(iiN  :  "Viriathus  sent  his  most  trusted  friends,  Audax,  Ditalco, 
and  Minurus,  to  Caei)io  to  arrange  terms  of  peace.  Caei)io 
bribed  them,  by  large  gifts  and  promises,  to  assassinate  Viri- 
athus, which  they  did  in  this  way.  Viriathus,  on  account  of 
his  excessive  cares  and  labors,  slej)t  but  little,  and  for  the  most 
part  took  rest  in  his  armor  so  tliat  when  aroused  he  should  be 
pre|>arcd  for  every  emergency.  For  this  reason  it  was  per- 
mitted to  his  friends  to  visit  him  by  night;  taking  advantage 
of  this  custom,  those  who  were  associated  with  Audax  in  guard- 
ing him  entered  his  tent  as  if  on  pressing  business,  just  as  he 
liad  fallen  aslccj),  and  killed  him  by  stabbing  him  in  the  tliroat, 
which  was  the  only  part  of  liis  body  not  protected  by  armor." 
Thus  pjissed  away  the  leader  against  whom  the  Romans  had 
scut  legion  after  legion  ^\•ithout  avail  for  nearly  ten  years. 
After  his  death  the  rebellion  collapsed.  All  this  took  place  in 
Farther  Sj)ain. 

201.  The  War  with  Numantia,  143  - 133  B.C.  Li  tlie  })rov- 
ince  of  Hither  Spain,  w^ar  was  going  on  at  the  same  time.  Its 
story  is  a  similar  one  of  broken  pledges,  incapable  connnanders, 
and  undisciplined  armies.  At  last  the'Romans  found  an  able 
leader  in  Scii)io  Aemilianus,  who  had  already  distinguished 
himself  in  Africa,  and  the  last  opposition  to  Roman  rule  dis- 
a})peared  wlien  Numantia  was  blockaded  by  him  and  reduced 
after  an  heroic  resistance. 

202.  Carthage  Recovers  her  Prosperity.  AVe  have  traced 
the  history  of  the  two  provinces  which  Rome  exacted  from 
Carthage  as  the  spoils  of  war.  We  must  turn  now  for  a  moment 
to  follow  the  career  of  Carthage  herself.  The  restoration  of 
peace  in  201  brought  her  prosperity  again.  Her  commerce 
sprang  up;  the  city  grew,  and  the  wealth  of  lier  citizens  increased. 
This  very  development,  although  Carthage  faithfully  observed 
her  treat V  obligations  both  in  letter  and  s}>irit,  excited  anxiety, 
jealousy,  and  the  old  animosity  at  Rome.  In  the  cpiarrcls 
whicli  arose  between  licr  and  hei-  neighbor  ^lasinissa,  king  of 
Numidia,  Rome  steadily  abetteil  and  favored  INlasinissa,  watching 


110 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


EXPANSION  BEYOND  THF   SEA 


111 


for  somv  i>relext  to  (lochirc  war  n\mu  Cartluij^i^  M  Utst  the 
Cartlia-ini;n.^  -Irivm  t(,  (lrs|HTati.,n  by  llu'  cncroadimenls 
of  Masinissa,  u^K'nvd  \h>s[\\\[\v>  a<:ainsl  him. 

203.  The  Third  Punic  War,  149  - 146  B.C.    1  o  wage  war 
in  Africa  without  UoiiuA  con.riil  wa.;  in  violation  of  the  treaty 
of  201,  and  the  war  party  in  Konie,  \vd  by  M-  Poreius  Cato, 
ea^rerly  seized  tliis  pretext  to  invade  Africa,  and  demand  the 
iimnediate   subnns.i<.n   of  (  artlia^^e.     The  Carthaginians    has- 
tened to  vield.     Tliev  condeninrd  to  <leath   the  leaders  in  the 
war  against    Xuniidia;    they  gave   hostages,   and   surrendered 
all  theh-  arms  and  munitions.     When  the  (^arthaginian  ambassa- 
dors liad  sati.fird  all  these  ixMiuirements,  (  cnsorimis,  the  consul, 
stated  Uomivs  iinal  demand:  "Vonr  ready  obe.lience  up  to  thn 
,,oint,  Carthaginians,"   he   said,  "iti  the  uiatkr  of  the  hostages 
and  the  arms,   is  worthy  of  all   prai.e.     In  cases  of  neeessily 
we  must  not  multii)ly  words.     Bear  Ijravely  the  remainnig  com- 
mands of  the  senate.     Vield  Carthage  to  us,  and  betake  your- 
selves wliere  you  like  within  your  own  territory  to  a  distance 
of  i,t  least  ten  miles  from  the  sea,  for  we  are  resolved  to  raze 
your  city  to  the  unnrnd."  ^ 

204.  The  Destructijon  of  Carthage,  146  B.C.  The  Car- 
thaginians were  fire.l  with  the  courage  of  despair.  They  made 
IIa.sdrul)al  their  leader.  ^Ml  the  sacred  places,  the  Icniples, 
and  everv  other  unoceui)ied  si)ace,  were  turned  into  worksliops, 
where  men  and  women  worked  together  day  and  night  without 
pause.  Each  dav  tliey  made  one  hundred  shields,  three  hundred 
swords,  one  thousand  mi^^il.'s  for  eatapults,  five  humlred  (kirls 
and  javelins,  and  as  many  ea  tapult.  as  tlicy  couhl.  For  strings 
to  bend  them  the  women  cut  olf  their  hair  for  want  of  other 
fibres,"  and,  when  tlie  Romans  api)eared  before  the  city,  tliey 
found  it  prepared  for  Ji  desperate  defense.  The  l)ravery  and 
skill  of  the  Carthaginians  cooperated  with  hunger  and  disease 
in  the  Ronuin  eami)  to  thwart  all  attemjJts  at  capturing  the  city 
for  two  years.  The  Romans  were  ('\cn  l)Ut  on  the  def(Misive. 
One  Roman  leader,  a  mere  milil-iry  tribune,  P.  (\)rnelius  Scipio 
Aemilianus,  son  of  L.  Aemilius  Paulus,  who  defeated  Perseus, 


and  the  adopted  grandson  of  the  victor  at  Zama,  distinguished 
liimself  in  the  siege.  Although  he  was  only  thirty-seven  years 
old,  the  Romans,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  chose  him  consul 
for  147,  and  gave  him  command  of  the  forces  in  Africa.  He 
restored    discipline  in  the  army;    inspired  it  with    confidence 


PLAN    OF    CAUTHAQE 


again,  and  cut  C  iirthago  off  both  by  land  and  sea.  By  desperate 
a.ssaults  one  part  after  iinother  of  the  city  was  cai)tured,  until 
at  last  the  whole  town  was  taken.  Carthage  was  burned  to 
the  ground  by  order  of  the  senate.  Its  site  was  dedicated 
to  the  gods  of  the  world  below,  and  its  territory  became  the 
province  of  Africa. 

205.  Asia  Minor.  Still  more  territory  came  to  the  Romans 
on  the  death  of  Attains  III,  king  of  Pergamum,  who  bequeathed 
his  kingdom  to  Rome.  Such  resistance  as  was  offered  to  the 
assumi)tion  of  this  inheritance  was  overcome  without  serious 
difficulty,  and  the  Romans  took  the  opportunity  to  organize 
their  possessions  in  this  (piarter  into  the  province  of  Asia. 

206.  Roman  Territory  in  133  B.C.  As  a  result  of  the 
Great  ^Vars  wliich  began  in  204,  Rome  had  acquired  seven  prov- 


112 


ROMAX    IIISTORY 


inccs,  Sicily,  Sardinia  and  Corsica,  Ilitlicr  Spain,  Farther  Sj)ain. 
Macedonia,  Asia,  and  Africa,  while  Cisalpine  (iaul  and  Illyri- 
cuni,  although  not  erected  into  provinces,  were  administered 
by  the  consuls.  Cnder  iter  suzerainty  were  Nuniidia,  Libya, 
Egypt,  the  islands  of  Cyj)rus  and  Crete,  and  the  whole  of  Asia 
Minor  to  the  west  of  the  Taurus  range  of  niounta.ins,  except 
the  province  of  Asia,  whieli  was  of  course   an  inlegral  part  of 

the  eni[)ire. 

207.  The  Government  of  a  Province.  Various  forms 
of  governnu'ut  were  tried  in  the  earliest  provinces,  but  after 
IK)  B  ('.,  wluMi  new  territory  was  ac((uired,  the  senate  adopted 
the  uniform  jjractu'c  of  sending  out  a  connnission,  made  up  of 
ten  senjitors,  which  cooperated  with  the  conunanding  general 
in  drawing  up  the  constitution  of  the  province.  In  two  impor- 
tant particulars  the  govermnent  of  tlu'  ])rovinces  difhrcd  from 
tliat  of  the  Italian  connnunities.  In  tlie  first  place,  Italy  was 
under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  s(>nate,  while  each  province 
was  governed  by  a  praetor.  The  >eeond  iin[)ortant  dill'erence 
consisted  in  tlie  fact  thai  tlie  Italians  were  free  from  taxation, 
while  most  of  the  pn»vineial  towns  were  sultjeet  to  ee?-tain 
imposts.  The  provincial  tax  usually  took  tlie  form  of  a  fixed 
contnl)Ution,  or  .st/pnidiinn  laid  u|)on  a  comnnmity,  or  else 
a  certain  proportion  of  the  annual  returns  from  the  land,  a 
rnilfjal,  was  required.  The  metliod  of  managing  local  affairs 
varied  in  different  provinces,  and  was  ada|)ted  ifi  some  measun' 
to  the  lu'cds  and  traditional  practices  of  the  j)eople,  and  the 
degree  of  independcnee  allowed  to  a  town  depended  upon  the 
attitude  which  she  took  or  had  taken  toWiird  Uomc.  Com- 
munities which  were  loyal  to  her  sometimes  became  free  states. 
Tho.sc  whicli  resisted  her  autliority  were  made  dependent, 
while  towns,  like  Carthage  and  Xuniantia,  which  op[)osed  hvv 
to  the  vnd,  were  destroyed.  Free  vf-.i,  <  enjoyed  the  privilege 
of  local  .self-government,  but  weie  not  allowed  to  enter  into 
negotiations  with  other  states.  l)e|>endent  communities  paid 
taxes,  and  conducted  their  local  alfairs  under  the  supervision 
of  Roman  officials. 


/f. 


lA    ?^ 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  201  B.C. 

K-miin  TtTTit-rv 


/ 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  133  B.C. 

Koiuan   I 


i. 


EXPANSION    BEYOND   THE  SEA 


113 


ft 


1 


DEVELOPMENT  »)F  ROMAN  TEKRITOHY  FROM  201  TO  133  B.C. 

1  in  T'-rrit'try  at  th>'  tn't'lrinim:  "f  the  Vn-  M;ip  facing'  i 


208.  Summary  Account  of  the  Conquest  of  Mediterra- 
nean Lands,  264-133  B.  C.  We  have  iiotieed  that  Koine's  war 
with  Pyrrhus  made  her  at  hist  mistress  of  all  Italy,  gave  her  a 
hirge,  well-trained  army,  and  so  raised  her  to  the  j)osition  of  a 
Mediterranean  power,  and  made  her  the  rival  of  Carthage  for 
the  trade  and  the  political  control  of  the  western  Mediterranean. 
Rome  had  an  advantage  in  the  com[)actness  of  her  territory 
and  in  tlie  composition  of  her  army;  Cartilage  in  the  excellence 
of  her  navy.  The  war  was  carried  on  mainly  in  Sicily  and  the 
adjacent  waters,  and  ended  with  the  triumph  of  Rome.  She 
won  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Corsica,  and  thus  ac(piired  her  first 
tei-ritory  outside  of  Italy,  and  established  her  first  })rovincc. 
Both  Rome  and  Carthage  pre})arcd  for  another  struggle,  Rome 
l)y  i)rotecting  herself  in  the  rear,  Carthage  by  establishing  her- 
self in  Spain.  The  Second  Punic  War  began  with  a  (piarrel 
over  Saguntum.  Ilannibjd,  after  taking  the  city,  marchecl  ox-cr- 
lan<l  into  Italy,  defeated  the  Romans  in  numerous  battles,  but 
was  ultimately  forced  to  return  to  Africa,  and  was  defeated  at 
Zama.  Carthage  lost  Spain.  The  ambitious  designs  of  Mace- 
donia and  Syria  were  thwarted,  and  tlie  territory  gained  was 
organized  into  the  provinces  of  Macedonia  and  Asia.  A  protec- 
torate was  established  over  Egyj)t.  With  the  fall  of  Cartham' 
Rome's  old-time  rival  disappeared.  At  the  close  of  the  peri(;d 
Rome  was  in  control  of  both  the  eastern  and  western  Mediter- 
ranean. 


EXPAXsioN   ju:y()M)  the  se.v 


118 


7      — ^ 


y; 


H 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  201  B.C. 


rJ 


^  /-^ 


r 


.y^ 


I 


,'  r-p 


..„_^ 


J 


ROMAN  TERRITOH 
in  133  B.C. 


V     1 


tw 


/ 


J 


.» 

<. 


t 


j 


n. 


♦ 


^ 


208.  Summary  Account  of  the  Conquest  of  Mediterra- 
nean Lands,  264-133  B.  C.  Wv  have  noticed  llial  Koine's  war 
Willi  Pyrrlius  made  lior  at  last  iHi.sfivss  of  ail  Italy,  ^^nw  lu^r  a 
lar^as  well-trained  army,  and  so  raised  her  to  the  j)osition  of  a 
Mediterranean  power,  and  made  her  the  rival  of  (^irtha<j:e  for 
the  trade  and  the  political  control  of  the  W(\stern  Alediterranean. 
Koine  had  an  advanta^^^e  in  the  compactness  of  her  territ(>ry 
and  in  the  conij)osition  of  her  army;  ('arlha^'c  in  the  excellence 
of  her  navy.  The  war  was  carried  on  mainlv  in  Sicilv  and  the 
adjaci'iit  waters,  and  ended  with  the  triumph  of  Koine.  Slie 
won  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  ("orsiea,  and  thus  accpiired  her  first 
territory  outside  of  Italy,  and  established  her  first  j)rovince. 
Kotli  lioine  and  Cartha'^c  j)rej)are(l  for  another  stru<i:<.!:le,  Konic 
hy  protcctinti;  herself  in  the  rear,  (^irtha^c  hy  cstahlislnno-  her- 
self in  Sj»ain.  The  Second  Kunic  \Var  l)e<,^aii  VNith  a  (juarrel 
over  Sa^nmtum.  Hannibal,  after  takinjj;  the  city,  marched  oN-er- 
laiid  into  Italy,  defeated  the  Koin  ins  in  numerous  battles,  but 
was  ultimately  forced  to  return  to  .Vfrica,  and  was  defeated  at 
Zama.  ('artha^rc  lost  Sj)ain.  The  ambitious  desions  of  Mace- 
donia and  Syria  were  thwarted,  and  die  territory  ^'ained  was 
organized  into  the  provinces  of  Macedonia  and  Asia.  A  |>rotec- 
torale  was  establislied  ovei^  l^'.^ypt-  With  the  fall  of  Carthaj^^e 
Koine's  «»ld-timc  rival  disapjicarcd.  At  the  close  of  the  period 
Koine  was  in  control  of  both  the  (astern  and  western  Medittr- 
raiieaii. 


T>F.VV:I.OPM  K\"T   "'F    H<>M\N     I!    (n{!li>';v     i   n  i  i  \t    JO]      |    .     \  'A:',    M 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE   ROMAX    ST  VTE    AND   HER   PROVINCES 

(2()4-133,n.  r.) 

How  tho  sontfp  controlled  affairs  at  lioiiu'  ami  abroad —How  the  conQuest 
of  Me*littTraa.  la  lands  altected  Italy. 

209.  Political  Inactivity  at  Rome.  The  first  two  centuries 
of  tlie  He|)iil)lir  IkhI  Ix't'ii  years  of  creative  activity  in  political 
alfairs.  Offices  liad  been  established,  principles  of  government 
a(loj>lc(l,  and  precedents  set  wliicii  were  permanent  and  far- 
j(':icliing  in  their  appHcation.  But  the  passa^ije  of  the  Ilorten- 
sian  law  marked  the  end  of  the  struj^gle.  The  ])leheians  had 
secured  })oIitical  equality.  In  thi-  period  whose  external  history 
we  have  been  followinfij  in  tlie  last  chapter,  the  enerjijies  of  the 
Ilomans  are  (*xj)ended  in  striig<^les  with  their  Mediterranean 
rivals,  and  in  es.ablishing  an  orderly  goverinnent  in  the  prov- 
inces. Tlie  scene  of  political  activity  is  changed  from  Rome 
to  the  newlv  acquired  territorv  outside  of  Italy.  At  home  the 
Romans  content  themselves  in  the  main  with  adapting  the 
newl}  e>tal>lished  institutions,  like  the  magistracies  and  the 
popular  assemblies,  to  the  pressing  needs  of  the  community. 

210.  Reform  of  the  Centuriate  Assembly  about  241  B.C. 
The  most  comprehensive  political  change  in  domestic  affairs 
was  the  reform  of  tiie  centuriate  assembly.  Under  the  old 
arrangement  there  were  moic  centuries  in  tlie  first  class,  made 
up  of  tlic  rich,  than  there  were  in  the  lower  classes,  luid  con- 
se(juently  the  rich  controlled  the  assembly.  In  the  reformed 
organi/.atlon  each  one  of  the  five  classes,  into  wliich  the  citizens 
were  divided  according  to  their  wealth,  had  the  same  number 
of  centuries,  and  by  the  change  the  vote  of  a  poor  man  counted 
for  almost  as  naich  as  that  of  the  rich  man. 

211.  Control  of  Affairs  by  the  Senate.  The  composition 
of  this  liodv,  liowever,  was  not  a  matter  of  much  moment   at 

114 


THE   ROMAN   STATE    AND   HER    PROVINCES 


115 


II 


the  time,  partly  because  tlu^  tribal  asscnibhes  were  preferred 
to  the  centuriate  comitia  on  account  of  their  simpler  and  more 
democratic  organization,  but  mainly  ))ecausc  the  greater  part 
of  the  legislation  of  the  period  emanates  from  no  poj)ular 
assemblv  whatsoever,  but  from  the  senate.  Government  bv 
the  senate  had  its  advantages  and  its  disadvantages.  It  gave  a 
continuity  to  Roman  ])()licy,  \\Jiich  chief  magistrates,  changing 
from  year  to  year,  could  not  have  secured.  It  j)revente(l  liic 
individual  commander  or  magistrate  from  sul)(>rdinating  the 
public  good  to  his  personal  ambition.  On  the  other  Iiand  it 
hampered  the  commander  in  the  field  and  the  governor  in  a 
province,  and  in  some  measure  took  the  management  of  distant 
affairs  out  of  the  liands  of  those  who  were  on  the  sjx)!,  and, 
therefore,  best  quaUfied  to  reach  a  wise  decision.  Rut  i)erhaps 
its  greatest  disadvantage  was  on  the  score  of  morals  rather  than 
of  efficiency.  A  bodv  of  men  will  oftentimes  instruct  its  cxecu- 
tive  to  perform  an  act  which  an  individual  member  of  the  body, 
with  the  full  sense  of  responsibility  resting  upon  him,  would 
neither  carry  out  of  his  own  initiative,  nor  authorize  another 
to  carry  out.  Such  an  act,  for  instance,  was  the  burning  of 
Carthage,  which  Scipio  Aemilianus  carried  out  against  his  will 
under  exi)ress  orders  from  the  senate. 

212.  How  the  Senate  Maintained  its  Exclusive  Charac- 
ter. The  senate  managed  to  make  itself  essentially  a  close  cor- 
poration. Only  a  man  like  Cato,  of  exceptional  ability  and  force 
of  character,  if  he  were  outside  the  charmed  circle  of  the  nohill- 
tas,  could  hope  to  secure  office  and  thus  enter  the  senate. 
Like  every  other  oligarchy,  this  body  had  to  protect  itself  at 
two  points.  It  must  keep  outsiders  from  getting  in,  and  it 
must  prevent  any  citizen,  whether  one  of  its  members  or  not, 
from  acquiring  great  power,  and  from  limiting  its  influence  by 
exercising  this  power.  The  circumstances  which  gave  to  it  its 
exclusive  character  we  have  already  observed,  and  the  new 
weapons  which  it  forged  against  the  knights,  the  rich  men  out- 
side its  number,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  shortly. 


116 


ROMAX    HISTORY 


213.  How  It  Held  Popular  Favorites  in  Check.  To  pro- 
tect itself  cifi^airist  jntihitions  individuals,  the  ii(»l)ility  in  the  year 
180  seeiired  the  pa;v^a-r  of  a  law  fi\in«j,-  dire<'tly  or  iiidiivctly 
the  age  at  which  citizens  iniji:lit  heeoine  eandiihites  for  the  more 
important  ofliees.  This  law  covered  only  two  or  tln-ee  of  the 
principal   niaj^nstraeies,    l>nt    the   praeti  )f  many  years  had 

fixed  the  position  of  flu  oiIht  offices  also  in  a  carefully  gradeil 
system,  so  that  the  cui.^u.^.  houanun,  or  fixed  order  in  which 
the  magistracies  were  to  l)e  held,  was  established — an  arrange- 
ment resting  partly  on  law  and  partly  on  custom.  In  this 
establislied  order  the  military  Irihunale  came  first,  then  a  i)osi- 
tion  as  one  of  the  twcnh-^ix  coiinnissioners  who  had  charge 
of  the  mint,  of  the  >trc(  i  .  aiai  odier  malkrs,  hjllowed  hy  die 
quaestorshij),  the  tribunate  of  the  [)]ebs  (recjuired  of  plebe- 
ians only),  the  aedilcship,  the  pracl(n-ship,  and  die  consulshij). 
Aliout  the  middle  of  the  secon»l  century  reeleclion  to  the  consul- 
ship was  lot-bidden.  1>v  tbe  V\r<\  <  if*  ■mard,  that  is,  by  the 
establisliment  of  the  rm.su.s  niinfinun,  liie  Miiate  aimed  to  make 
the  political  })romotion  of  a  p(»pular  favorite  as  slow  and  as 
regular  as  |)ossible,  by  obliging  him  to  take  the  lower  magis- 
tracies l>efore  he  could  be  advanced  to  the  higher.  Hy  the 
second  measure,  which  [)rf>liibitcd  recKftion  t(>  llie  consulship, 
it  hoped  to  prevent  an  ambitious  politu  lan  from  holding  office 
too  long. 

214.  Misgovernment  in  the  Provinces.    We  already  know 

the  general  form  of  government  which  the  senate  after  some 
exi)eriment^  worked  out  for  the  provinces.  All'airs  were  at  first 
administered  by  ju-aetors  sent  out  each  year  from  Koine,  and 
later  by  proj)raetors  and  |)roconsuls,  tha*  is,  by  ex-magistrates 
holding  the  rank  and  power>  of  i  praetor  or  consul.  The 
(•■ovcrnor  was  assist(>d  bv  a  (iuae>tor.  or  treasurer,  and  a  board 
of  advisers,  representing  the  sen..i<.  At  first  sight  it  would 
seem  as  if  tlie  i)rovinees  might  exj)ect  a  reasonably  just  and 
eniclent  govermnent  under  tliis  system,  es|)ecially  since  each 
[iroA  ince  had  a  constitution,  and  since,  after  I  H»,  governors 
were  lial»le  to  trial  for  misconduct  before  a  peniianent  court. 


THE   ROMAN    ST.\TE    ANB    riER    PROVINCES 


117 


ii 


u 


II 


But  the  management  of  tlie  provinces  was  far  from  being  either 
just  or  efficient.  It  was  not  just  because  the  natives  had  no 
real  protection  against  the  unbridled  avarice  of  the  governor 
and  the  taxgatherer.  It  was  inefficicMit  because  Roman  officials 
had  no  acquaintanc(^  with  Uie  conditions  of  the  provinces  over 
which  they  were  placed. 

215.  The  Autocratic  Power  of  Governors.  When  the 
niiigistrate  passed  beyond  the  bounds  of  Italy,  all  the  con- 
stitutional limitations  laid  upon  his  action  were  suspended,  and 
he  became  a  ruk'r  witli  arbitrary  power.  He  had  no  colleagues; 
the  |)r(jvincial  ha<l  no  right  to  appeal  from  his  decision,  and  no 
tribune  inter[>osed  the  shield  of  his  [)rotection  between  the 
autocrat  and  tlu*  subject.  The  (juaestor  had  no  independent 
authority,  and  the  members  of  the  provincial  lK)ard  of  advisers 
were  api)ointed  by  the  governor  liimself,  and  could  be  trusted 
not  to  thwart  his  wishes.  Hven  the  constitution  of  the  province 
afforded  the  natives  little  protection.  It  was  a  costly  matter 
to  bring  an  action  in  Rome  against  a  governor  who  liad  violate<l 
the  constitution  of  a  j)rovince;  it  was  ;i  dangerous  Uiing  to  give 
evideiici'  against  him,  and  th(M-(>  was  little  hope  of  justice  from 
a  court  whose  members  either  o[)enly  sympadnzed  with  the 
culprit,  or  could  be  bought  by  his  money,  or  who  based  dieir 
verdict  on  I)arty  consick'rations. 

216.  Their  Rapacity.  What  the  fat(M)f  the  provinces  was 
unck'r  this  system,  when  they  fell  into  the  hands  of  inrn  whose 
only  objects  in  going  abroad  were  to  recoui)  themselves  for  the 
immense  sums  which  they  had  sikmU  in  securing  election  to 
olHcc  at  Rome,  and  to  amass  a  fortune  to  meet  their  future  needs 
at  home,  is  shown  clearly  «'nougli  at  a  later  date  in  Cicero's 
.scathing  arraignment  of  Vern  s,  the  governor  of  Sicily. 

217.  Their  Ignorance  of  Local  Conditions.  Even  if  a 
governor  were  honest,  the  cas(>  was  almost  as  bad.  He  would 
probably  have  little  or  no  previous  knowledge  of  his  province 
or  its  people;  his  staff  was  composed  of  men  as  ignorant  of  the 
conditions  as  himself,  and  in  the  twelve  months  of  his  term  of 
otfice,  he  could  g.\in  little  information,  correct  few  abuses,  and 


ns 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


THE   ROMAN    STATE  AND    HER   PROVINCES 


119 


« ^tablisli  no  policy  of  his  own.  In  sucli  circumstances,  to 
send  ott*  to  Asia,  aiaonir  ( )ncnfal^.  a  irovcnior  who  knew  nothing 
but  Roman  institutions  and  Koinaii  \ui,\.^  of  living  and  thinking 
could  not  fail  to  result  in  misgovernnient.  If  one  calls  to  mind 
England's  method  of  governing  India,  for  instance,  one  sees 
by  contrast  how  fundamentally  wrong  the  Roman  system  was. 
The  u-i.vTrmir-general  of  England's  eolony  anil  his  council  hold 
oflice  usuallv  for  five  vears,  and  the  majority  of  the  council 
must  hiive  been  in  the  Indian  service  for  ten  years  at  least, 
before  they  are  appointed  eouncillors,  while  subordinate  posts 
are  filled  by  men  who  liave  si)ecially  j)repared  themselves  for 
tlie  W(»rk,  and  intend  to  spend  a  large  i)art  of  their  lives  in  India. 

218.  Economic  Condition  of  the  Provinces.  In  the  train 
of  the  -rovernor  came  the  trader  and  the  tax-farmer.  Roman 
merehants  and  bankrrs  abM)rl)ed  [hv  trade  of  tlie  province,  and 
loaned  iiiomy  at  usurious  rales  to  impoverished  communities 
arul  indivuluals,  enforcing  their  nefarious  contracts  with  the 
jomiivanee,  :ind  often  with  tlie  direct  sup|)()rt,  of  the  governor. 
Taxes  in  the  j)ro\inees  were  not  eolle«te(l  by  government 
oHieials,  but  the  stat*'  sold  at  auction  to  the  liighest  bidder  the 
riirht  to  collect  them.  The  |>ro(it  of  the  tax-farmer  kiv  in  what 
lie  ((tiild  eolleet  over  and  nbove  the  amount  which  he  had  bid 
for  tlie  privilege,  and  he,  like  the  banker  and  th<'  merchant, 
relied  uixai  tlie  gofxl  offices  of  the  gov«'rnor,  and  woe  betide 
tlie  governor  who  atteinj»ted  to  defend  the  native  against  the 
extortionate  deniaitffs  of  llie  taxgnlherer  and  liis  rich  and 
influential  backers  at  U#n}^.  IJetween  the  re([uisitions  of  the 
irt.vernor,  the  usurious  practices  of  the  monev  lender,  and  the 
insatiable  demands  of  the  puhHratnis,  or  taxgatlierer,  the  poor 
{)rovincial  sunk  into  a  hopeless  state  of  debt  and  misery,  or 
sought  relief  in  a  de-i^  lute  attempt  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of 
liis  Roman  master. 

219.  The  Benefits  which  Rome  Conferred  on  the  Prov- 
inces. This  i>  the  dark  side  of  the  pictur(%  but  it  has  its  bright 
side.     Evil  as  the  Roman  administrativ<'  and  financial  system 


0 


' 


in  the  provinces  was,  in  many  cases  it  com[>ared  favorably 
with  that  which  had  j^reteded  it.  In  most  localities  probably 
the  tribute  paid  directly  or  indirectly  to  Rome  was  no  greater 
than  the  provincial  had  in  former  days  paid  to  the  native  ruler, 
and  it  was  of  the  greatest  advantage  to  him  that  Rome  estab- 
lished order  in  each  community,  prevented  the  i>etty  states 
from  making  war  on  one  another,  introduced  a  uniform  system 
of  laws,  opened  courts  for  the  orderly  settlement  of  cases  under 
civilized  methods  of  prwedure,  l)uilt  roads  and  l)ridges,  excava- 
ted harbors,  and  protected  each  province  against  the  incursions 
of  its  less  civilized  neighbors.  These  were  the  i)ermanent  teie- 
fits  which  Rome  conferred  on  her  provinces,  and  one  can 
readily  see  that  if,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  governoi-  is  chosen 
on  the  score  of  fitness,  with  a  reasonably  long  term  of  office, 
and  is  made  subject  to  i)ro})er  limitations  on  his  exercise  of 
authority,  and  if  the  abuses  of  the  tax  system  are  removed, 
the  territory  which  Rome  has  actpiired  will  have  gained  in 
a  material  way,  at  least,  by  its  transfer  to  Roman  authority. 
And  this  hai>py  result  came  in  time,  as  wc  shall  sec. 

220.  Soldiers  Unfitted  for  Peaceful  Occupations.  Tlie 
political  and  social  changes  which  war  and  the  expansion  of 
Roman  territory  ett'ected  in  Italy  were  almost  as  marked  as 
those  which  the  coiupiered  nations  tliemselvcs  exi)erienced. 
The  citizen-soldiers  of  earlier  days  returned  at  tlie  end  of  a 
summer's  caini)aign  to  resume  their  old  vocations  and  to  take 
their  part  again  in  the  political  life  at  home.  But  men  who 
had  served,  perhaps  for  years,  in  (ireece,  Africa,  or  Spain,  who 
had  known  the  perils  and  the  excitement  of  a  soldier's  life, 
and  who  had  filled  their  purses  from  the  Ijooty  of  a  captured 
town,  were  quite  unfitted  to  settle  down  to  the  lal)orious,  lium- 
druin  life  of  a  farmer  and  an  artisan.  They  were  really  soldiers 
by  profession,  and  with  the  close  of  a  campaign  their  occupation 
was  gone.  They  had  become  accustomed  to  depend  upon  the 
state  for  their  livelihood  in  time  of  war,  and  in  time  of  peace 
they  looked  to  the  same  source  for  their  support.  The  restora- 
tion of  peace,   therefore,  threw  upon  the  community  a  great 


120 


R«>\l\\     HISTORY 


THE    ROMAN    STATE   AND    HER   PROVIXCES 


121 


body  of  men  disiiKHiicd  lo  any  ]Maccfiil  o<-cH|>ali()n,  and  nnfitti'd 
for  it. 

221.  Unfitted  for  Political  Life.  In  die  spliciv  of  [jolitics 
the  rt'sult  was  alniDsl  as  <li.sa.sln>u.s.  The  spirit  of  drnKKTacy 
has  little  in  eoninion  with  military  ideals.  The  freeman  should 
think  ami  act  and  \<>iv  for  liimself.  The  soldier  must  sur- 
ri'uder  his  own  opinion  and  judi^nneiil  to  aiiolln-r.  To  put  it 
in  another  way,  the  sneeessful  prosecution  of  a  eampai<(n  calls 
for  the  complete  snhmission  of  iht-  individual  soldier  to  the 
will  of  his  connnarider,  whil(<  sncrr-^^fnl  democratic  «i:overmnent 
de[)ends  nj>on  the  active,  intelligent,  and  free  participation  of 
the  individual  citizen  in  the  conduct  of  all'airs.  Kveu  if  the 
returned  soldier  had  heen  inclined  to  take  up  his  jxjlitieal  dutl.'s 
aji:aiii,  and  ca|»aMe  of  it,  he  wonld  have  found  that  the  M-nalc 
ha«l  taken  to  itself  the  nal  fnnctions  of  *(overnment,  while  to 
him  was  left  .tnly  participation  in  thr  rather  meaniu'dess  meet- 


iugs  of  the  comitia. 


222.  Decline  of  Italy.      The  «ronomic  condition  of  Italy 
outside  of   Kome   was   worse   than   that   of    the  capital,   hecaiise 
the  trade  (»f    the  city  developed,   whereas  the  country  districts 
depend(Ml  entirely  ..u  aKriculdnv,  and   a,srri<'ulture  was   ruined. 
War  had  drafted  (.If  the  vi-rorous  younir  hh-h,  and  nuicli  of  the 
land   relai)sed   into   its  primitive   >|  it(.   tor   lack  of    cultivation. 
The    cam{)ai;,nis    of    Ilaunihal    in    Italy   also  had   laid    waste  a 
great  |)art  of  the  peninsnla.      IJut  the  accpiisitiou  of  Sicily,  Sar- 
dinia, and  Africa  dealt  the  severest  blow  of  all  to  Italian  a*>ri- 
eulture.     These  three  fertile  reiri,,„s  .^ent  their  grain  to  he  sold 
in  Rome  at   price,    with   which    the    Italian    farmer  could    not 
compete,  and,  to  make  matters  worse,  in  times  of   scarcity  the 
govermnent  itself  sold  grain  at    j.rices  far  helow  their  natural 
level.     The  e,,n(liti„n  of  the  Italian  i)easant  went  from  had  to 
worse.     He  struggled  as  long  as  lu^  could  to  make  a  living  in 
these  adverse  circumstance,  nntil  hnally,  weighed  down  hy  debts 
and    mortgages,  lie  was    forcc.l    to  sell    his  little  farm  to  swell 
the  estate  of  some  landed  projirietor.     In  this  way  die  peasant 


5 


i 


T 


jM-oprietor  was  crowded  out  by  tlie  great  landow^ner.  The 
lot  of  the  free  agricultural  laborer  was  ecpially  unfortunate. 
Thousands  of  prisoners  had  been  taken  in  war,  l)rought  as 
slavivs  to  Italy,  and  set  to  work  in  the  country.  The  free  laborer 
could  not  and  would  not  compete  with  them.  There  was  noth- 
ing left  for  him  to  do  but  to  betake  himself  to  the  capital 
along  with  the  baidvrupt  farmer,  and  join  the  great  army  of 
the  unemployed,  in  the  Iiope  of  picking  up  a  precarious  living  by 
honorable  or  dishonorable  means,  or  of  being  supj)orted  by  the 

government. 

223.  Accumulation  of  Large  Fortunes.  While  the  poor 
became] KM )rer,  the  well-to-do  and  the  rich  amassed  great  fortunes. 
The  destruction  of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  and  the  decline  of 
Rhodes  made  Home  the  connnercial  and  banking  centre  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Ilcr  ships  absorbed  the  carrying  trade,  her 
men  hants  and  money  lenders  penetrated  to  all  parts  of  the 
world,  and  her  citizens  secured  the  contracts  for  the  construction 
of  roads  and  bridges  aii<l  the  collection  of  taxes. 

224.  Development  of  the  Equites.  Inasmuch  as  the 
senate  was  called  upon  to  pass  laws  alfecting  the  award  of  state 
contracts,  the  members  of  that  l)ody  were  not  allowed  to  take 
contracts  from  the  state.  They  were  also  forljidden  to  own  ves- 
sels bevond  a  sp(H-ified  toimage,  and  it  was  considered  unseemly 
for  them  to  sj)eculate.  For  this  reason  they  had  to  restrict  tlieir 
investments  to  landed  proi)erty  and  the  newly  developed  in- 
dustries were  left  to  the  middle  class,  the  cqidfcs',  or  knights, 
as  thcv  were  called.  This  title  henceforth  comes  to  indicate 
j)ractically  the  wealthy  men  who  were  not  members  of  the 
senate,  because,  in  the  early  ]>eriod,  when  a  man's  j)roperty 
had  reached  a  certain  amount  he  was  liable  to  service  in  the 
cavalry,  and  the  title  was  still  given  to  those  whose  fortunes 
amounted  to  a  certain  sum,  even  after  they  were  no  longer 
expected  to  serve  as  horsemen.  The  new  opportunities  for 
making  money  wliich  the  expansion  of  Roman  territory  offered, 
in(Tea»sed  inunenselv  the  size  and  influence  of  this  class  of  citi- 
zens,  which  became  essentially,  but  not  yet  legally,  a  new  order 


122 


ROM  AX    HISTORY 


of  nol)ilitv,  iust  helow  the  senate  in  social  and  political  impor- 

tanee. 

225.  They  Aspire  to  Political  Honors.  The  i)olitical 
ambitions  of  its  nienilnM-s  hrou-jjlit  it  into  sliaq)  conflict  with 
the  senate  and  the  uohilitas.  The  senatorial  nohility  had 
managed  for  generations  to  keep  all  the  olHces  in  its  own  hands. 
The  cqiiitc.'^  challenged  tins  privilege,  and  they  snpi)orted 
their  claims  l)y  the  la\  isli  nse  of  money  for  political  pnrposes 
upon  the  needy  fanners  and  farm  laborers  who  had  thronged 
to  the  city  and  npon  the  veterans  whom  the  retnrn  of  peace 
had  left  without  employment.  In  such  circumstances  wide- 
spread political  corrui)tion  was  inevital>le.  It  was  to  prevent 
the  cqin'fr\'  from  buyint!;  tlie  votes  of  these  classes  of  peoi)le  at 
the  eleeinMis  that  the  seiiatorial  nobility  secured  the  passage, 
in  the  second  century,  of  laws  against  bribery,  and  of  measures 
which  provided  for  a  secret  ballot  at  the  meetings  of  the  comitia. 

226.  Growth  of  Luxury.  The  evils  which  naturally  follow 
a  sudden  increase  of  wealth  were  aggravated  by  the  fact  that 
thecon(|uest  of  Magna  (Ira^'ia  and  the  East  brought  the  Romans 
into  contact  with  a  highly  developed  civilization  to  wliich  their 
previous  simple  life  was  in  marke<l  contrast.  The  development 
of  luxurious  tastes  and  the  means  of  gratifying  them  came  simul- 
taneously, and  tln'  ricli  Roman  rushed  into  reckless  expenditure 
on  his  houseliold  and  liis  retimie  with  the  intenjperance  which 
characterizes  tliose  who  have  become  suddenly  rich. 

227.  The  Opposition  Led  by  Cato.  The  advocates  of 
old-time  simplicit}',  led  by  Cato,  the  Censor,  set  tlieir  faces  like 
flint  against  this  tendency  to  luxurious  living.  They  called  in 
the  law  to  their  assistance,  and  ])rovided  by  statute  that  no 
woman  shoidd  wear  more  than  half  an  ounce  of  gold  and  that 
she  should  not  nsi'  j)uri)le  cloth.  Laws  were  passed  limiting 
the  number  of  guests  whom  a  householder  could  entertain, 
and  the  amount  which  he  could  spend  U})()n  a  single  dinner. 
Tliese  laws  acc'omi)Iished  little.  Thus,  for  instance,  twenty  years 
after  its  passage,  the  Oppian  law,  mentioned  above,  which  liad 
been  directed  against  display  in  dress,  was  repealed  in  spite 


THE    ROMAN    STATE    AND    HER    PROVINCES 


123 


of  the  vigorous  opposition  of  Cato,  who  was  at  the  time  consul. 
In  the  speech  which  the  historian  Livy  puts  into  Cato's  mouth 
the  orator  makes  this  gloomy  forecast  of  the  future:  ''You 
have  often  heard  me  lamenting  tlie  extravagance  of  w^omen 
and  of  men,  of  magistrates  as  well  as  of  private  citizens,  and 
maintaining  that  the  state  is  burdened  by  two  contradictory 
vices,  greed  and  a  taste  for  luxury,  evils  which  have  over- 
thrown all  great  empires.  As  the  lot  of  the  state  grows  better 
and  happier  day  by  day,  and  as  the  empire  develops— and  at 
this  moment  we  are  passing  over  into  Greece  and  Asia,  which 
are  filled  with  everytliing  to  tempt  the  desires  of  man,  and  are 
laying  hands  e\en  upon  the  treasures  of  kings— as  the  empire 
grows,  I  say,  I  dread  the  more  these  vices  of  greed  and  luxury, 
for  fear  that  these  possessions  have  captured  us  and  not  that 
we  have  cai)tured  them.  Hateful,  I  Jissure  you,  are  the  works 
of  art  brought  to  this  city  from  Syracuse.  Already  I  hear  too 
many  people  ex]iressing  [)raise  and  a<  I  mi  ration  of  the  statues 
of  the  gods  at  Corinth  and  Athens,  and  laughing  at  the  little 
clay  images  of  Roman  gods." 

228o  His  Censorship.  Cato  represented  in  his  person  the 
protest  of  the  old  Rome  against  the  new,  and  the  peculiar  mis- 
sion of  his  life  was  to  stem  the  tide  of  luxury,  and  to  maintain 
the  old-time  simple  standards  of  living.  He  preached  frugality 
without  ceasing;  he  supported  measures  intended  to  limit  ex- 
penditures, and  by  its  rigor,  made  his  censorship  long  re- 
membered 1)V  his  countrvmen.  The  senators  who  were  ex- 
eluded  from  the  senate  l)y  the  new  censor  on  account  of  their 
lax  mode  of  life,  the  rich  who  found  articles  of  luxury  rated 
for  pur{:)Oses  of  taxation  at  ten  times  their  real  value,  and  the  tax- 
farmers  who  were  held  strictly  to  their  contracts,  all  protested, 
but  without  avail,  because  Cato  had  the  confidence  of  the  peo- 
|)le.  He  saw  clearly  that  Greece  and  Asia  were  the  source 
of  the  evils  which  he  was  attacking,  and  he  oi)posed  vigorously 
the  introduction  of  Greek  i)hilosophy,  culture,  and  modes  of 
Uving;  but  it  was  beyond  the  power  of  any  one  man  to  stem 
the  tide. 


124 


ROMAN     Hlsl'f>RY 


229.  The  Effect  of  Greek  Influence  on   the     Romans. 

In  fact,  tlie  coiU(Uc.st  ij(  (ireecc  iiml  uf  tlk-  coiiiitries  in  which 
Greek  oiviHziitioii  existed  worked  a  e(>in{)lete  transformation 
in  the  life  and  character  of  the  Komaii.s.  A^  xion  as  Ronu" 
became  the  capital  of  tlie  world,  throngs  of  (neeks  (locked 
there,  or  were  broni^lit  tliere  as  slaw's.  d'hoiisands  of  Romans 
too  en;^'aged  in  trade  with  (rreek  lands,  or  went  to  the  East 
as  soldiers  or  officials.  <ii\;ek  litrratnre  and  art,  Greek  modes 
of  living  and  ideas  of  life  became  known  at  Rome,  and  were 
not  unwillingly  received  b ;•  iiiaiix.  Tlie  ellect  upon  Roman 
character  was  disastrous.  The  Romans  sull'ered  in  much  the 
same  way  as  peoples  on  a  lower  plaiu'  of  civilization  sullVr  to-day 
when  brought  by  con(piest  midcr  the  influence  «>f  a  more  higlily 
civilized  rac<'.  TIkw  were  hardly  pre[)are<l  to  take  what  was 
best  in  Gre(;k  civilization,  but  yielde<l  to  the  \  ices  and  weak- 
n  of  the  more  highly  developed  people,     (ireek  influence 

gave  a  great  stimulns,  it  is  trne,  to  I  lie  gr(»wth  of  literatnre 
and  art,  i)Ut  even  llii^  v\as  not  an  nninixcd  blessing,  becanse 
it  prevented  Rome  from  dev<'loj)ing  a  literature  and  art  along 
the  lines  of  her  own  national  genins.  Tlu'  lioman  wi'ifer  or 
the  Roman  artist  tried  to  imitate  his  Greek  models.  As  a 
result,  he  faih'd  either  to  v(\\\i\\  theui  or  to  bring  ont  the  best 
of  which  he  was  himself  ea|»al>lc. 

230.  Narrow-mindedness  Disappears.  By  (oming  into 
contact  with  the  outside  world  Rome  in  a  large  measnre  lost 
her  contempt  for  other  j)coples  and  her  belief  in  the  i)erfcction 
of  her  own  institutions.  Slie  went  ^o  far  as  to  recognize  the 
fact  that  the  individual  freeman,  whether  a  Roman  or  a  for- 
eigner, had  certain  rights,  and  wlien  settling  judicial  (piestions, 
even  those  in  whicli  foreigners  wei'e  eoneerned,  slie  did  not 
insist  upon  the  aj»[)lication  of  Roman  law  in  all  its  details,  but 
ap|)iic(l  tile ''n<t"in- "f  il^<>  eivili/ed  world,  and  thus  develo{>ed 
the  ///.v  fjrnlin III ,  ai\  international  })ri\afe  lau'.  Such  concessions 
as  this  show  clearly  enough  that  Koine  was  losing  her  narrow- 
mindedness  and  was  abJ«'  to  fiml  somctliing  worth  a<i(H)ting 
in  the  practices  of  others. 


Tin:     IIOMAX    STATi:     \\l>    HER    PROVIXCES 


125 


I 


w 


^ 


) 


231.  Changes  in  Roman  Character.  Tliis  tolerant  atti- 
tude toward  foreign  i«leas  and  practices  had  its  drawbacks, 
however.  In  the  e\-eryday  life  of  the  citizens  the  ///o/v.v  nuuorani, 
or  practices  of  the  fathers,  lost  much  of  theii'  compelling  power, 
and  were  no  longer  obiyed  withont  (juestion.  Simj)licity  of 
life,  the  ability  to  endnre  hardshij),  u|)riglit  conduct,  and  the 
maintenance  of  pcrscmal  dignity  and  independence  ceased  to 
be  the  universal  iileals  which  they  had  l)een  in  tlie  past.  Men 
developed  a  craving  for  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  life,  and 
in  order  to  get  them  were  willing  to  sacrifice  their  honesty  and 
self- res jH'ct.  Those  who  |)ossessed  a  large  nu'asure  of  the  good 
things  of  the  world  were  j)ulTcd  up  by  their  possessions,  and 
were  fawned  upon  or  cnvii'd  by  their  less  fortunate  fellow-men. 
The  inve<'tivcs  of  Gato,  the  prosecutions  for  extortion,  the  laws 
atrainst  bril)erv,  all  of  which  we  have  alreadv  noticed,  and  the 
struggle  between  the  |)oor  and  the  rich  in  the  generation  which 
follows  bring  out   plainly  the.e  changes  in  Roman  character. 

232.  Changes  in  Education.  '11  le  influence  of  Greek  cul- 
ture both  for  good  and  for  evil  was  the  more  eirective  l)ecause 
it  was  brought  to  bear  directly  uj)on  the  young.  In  early  days 
a  Roman  l>oy  received  his  training  from  his  father.  It  was 
very  simple.  It  consisted  in  the  main  of  such  physical  exercises 
as  swimming,  running,  riding,  and  tlu^  use  of  arms,  and  the 
ac(juisition  of  jin  ability  to  read,  write,  and  make  simple  calcula- 
tions. This  was  the  sort  of  education  which  Cato  gave  his  son. 
The  girl  was  ti"aine(l  by  her  mother  so  that  she  might  be  able 
to  manage  a  household  when  the  time  came  for  her  to  marry. 
From  tlie  bcji'inning  of  the  second  ceiiturv  l>efore  our  era  the 
hardening  phvsical  exercises  fell  more  into  disuse,  and  in  their 
stead  tliere  were  substituted  the  study  of  Latin  and  Greek 
literature,  rhetoric,  and  law,  and  what  was  a  still  more  significant 
cliange,  a  l)oy's  training  was  entrusted  to  a  professional  Greek 
teacher,  who  was  often  a  slave  in  the  household.  No  way 
more  effective  than  this  of  grafting  Greek  qualities  on  the  old 
Roman  stock  could  have  been  devised. 


126 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


THE   ROMAN   STATE    AND   HER   PROVINCES 


127 


233.  The  Integrity  of  the  Family  Weakened.  The  new 
influences  threaleniMl  tlie  unity  of  llie  family.  Wives  Mucessfully 
asserted  their  fn-edoin  in  certain  matters  from  the  control  of 
their  husbands.  In  sonir  cases  women  on  marrying  even  re- 
tained control  of  their  own  property.  Divorce  was  not  un- 
known. A  son  too  acquired  some  measure  of  independence, 
and  not  infrequently  slaves  by  their  cleverness  and  ability  gained 
a  virtual  control  of  the  household.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  was 
far  removed  from  tliat  of  the  primitive  days,  wlien  marriage 
was  indissoluble  and  the  right  of  the  father  over  the  life  and 
property  of  every  member  of  his  houseliold  could  not  be  ques- 
tioned even  bv  the  state. 

234.  New  Inventions.  It  was  during  this  period  that 
manv  of  the  conveniences  of  civili/ed  life  were  introduced  into 
Rome.  From  the  Egyptians,  for  instance,  came  the  water- 
clock  and  the  liydraulic  pnni|);  from  the  (irccks  various  musical 
instruments;  from  the  (lauls  vehicles  of  ditt'erent  kinds,  and 
tiles  to  be  used  in  building. 

236.  New  Industries.  That  life  in  Home  was  l)ecoming 
more  complex  is  clearly  shown  also  by  the  introduction  of  new 
industries  and  occui)ations.  W'v  hear,  for  instance,  of  inn- 
keepers ajid  dealers  in  wine,  of  pnjfessional  cooks  and  scribes, 
of  |)hysicians,  actors,  and  gladiators,  and  of  teachers  of  nuisic 
and  dancing.  The  city  took  on  more  of  a  metropolitan  ai)pear- 
ance  from  the  fact  that  men  engaged  in  the  same  trade  showed 
a  tendency  to  gather  at  a  given  point.  For  example,  the  butchers 
and  oil-merchants  had  their  stands  in  the  Velabrum,  as  we  know 
from  Plant  us. 

236.  Extravagance.  The  passion  wliich  the  common  peo- 
ple developed  for  theatrical  and  gladiatorial  |)erformances 
shows  itself  in  a  marked  way  in  this  period.  Figlits  with  wild 
beasts  and  contests  between  [)rofessional  athletes  were  intro- 
duced in  1^<),  and  elaborate  nuisical  entertainments  al)out 
twentv  vear>  later.     As  for  tlie  well-to-d(i,  wv  have  noticed  that 

*      t. 

they  spent   their  money   with   the  lavi.shness   characteristic  of 
those  who  have  become  suddenlv  rich.     They  built  fine  houses 


and  villas,  laid  out  magnificent  gardens,  bought  costly  articles 
of  furniture,  nuide  collections  of  works  of  art  and  bric-a-brac, 
and  employed  large  numbers  of  house  slaves.  Trade  with  the 
Orient  responded  quickly  to  the 
demands  for  articles  of  luxury  by 
pouring  into  Rome  purple  stuffs 
from  Miletus,  glassware  and  gar- 
ments of  linen  and  cotton  from 
Egypt,  fine  wines  from  Greece, 
and  s})ices  from  Ethiopia  and 
Syria. 

237.  Religious  Changes.  The 
crude  conceptions  which  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  early  days  had  of  the 
gods  would  not  harmonize  with 
the  wider  knowledge  which  they 
had  acciuired  from  contact  with 
the  outside  world.  The  old  reli- 
gion secnu'd  cold,  formal,  and 
colorless,  too,  in  comparison  with 
the  religions  of  Greece  and  Asia,  and  ceased  to  satisfy  the  aspira- 
tions of  the  ])eople.  The  need  for  something  more  personal  and 
more  spiritual  was  supplied  in  j)art  by  investing  certain  Roman 
gods  with  the  attributes  of  the  Greek  deities  which  were  most  like 
them,  and  by  introducing  bodily  the  worship  of  certain  foreign 
gods.  Thus  the  Roman  Jupiter  and  the  Greek  Zeus  were 
identified,  Juno  and  Hera,  Mercury  and  Hermes,  Mars  and 
Ares,  the  worship  of  Serapis  was  brought  from  Egypt,  and  that 
of  Cybele  from  Asia  Minor.  Reverence  was  still  paid  to  the 
Lares  and  Penates  in  the  household,  and  the  state  still  main- 
lained  the  forms  of  the  old  faith  for  official  purposes,  but  for 
the  niiuss  of  the  peoi)le  the  old  religion  was  ra})idly  losing  its 
meaning  and  its  restraining  force.  The  more  intelligent  had 
become  skeptical,  and  the  common  peo])le  were  la])sing  into 
the  lower  forms  of  superstition. 


ROMAN    GLADIATOR 


12(> 


1{(>\IA\    HISTORY 


THE   ROMAN    STATE    AND    HER    PROVINCES 


127 


233.  The  Integrity  of  the  Family  Weakened.     The  new 

infhience>  threatened  the  unity  of  the  fiunily.  \Vive>  >u((e>>fully 
ii->MTte(l  th«-ir  freedom  in  rcrtain  matters  from  tlie  eontrol  of 
their  husbands.  In  >oine  caxs  women  on  marrvin<x  even  re- 
tained control  of  their  own  i)ro|)erty.  Divonx'  was  not  un- 
known. A  son  too  ae(|uired  some  measure  of  independence, 
and  not  infre(iuently  shives  l)y  their  cleverness  and  ability  jj^ained 
a  virtual  eontrol  of  the  liousehold.  Such  a  state  of  atl'airs  was 
far  removed  from  that  of  tlie  primitive  days,  wlieii  nuirriaf^^e 
was  indissoluble  and  tlie  ri,i;ht  (.f  the  father  over  the  life  and 
property  of  every  memln'r  of  his  household  eould  not  be  (pies- 
tionecl  e\cn  by  the  state. 

234.  New  Inventions.  It  was  during  this  p<-riod  that 
many  of  the  eonvenienees  of  civilized  life  were  introduced  into 
I{ome.  From  the  K^^ptians,  for  instance,  came  the  water- 
cl«)ck  and  the  hydraulic  i»ump;  from  the  ( ireeks  various  musical 
instruments;  from  the  (»auls  vehicles  of  ditVerent  kinds,  and 
tiles  to  be  used  in  buildint,'. 

235.  New  Industries.  That  life  in  Home  wa>  bccomino 
more  c(nnple\  i^  clearly  >hown  als(»  l)y  the  introduction  of  new 
industries  and  occupations.  We  hear,  for  instance,  of  inn- 
keepers antl  dealers  in  wine,  of  |>rofessional  cooks  and  scribes, 
of  j)hvsicians,  actors,  and  ^dadiators,  ami  of  teachers  of  music 
and  dancino;.  The  city  took  on  more  of  a  metropolitan  a])pear- 
ance  from  the  fact  that  men  en^^a*,'ed  in  the  same  trade  showed 
a  tendency  to  jjather  at  a  «riven  point.  For  e\ani|)le,  the  butchers 
and  oil-merchanls  liad  their  stands  in  the  Velabrum,  as  we  know 
from  Plautus. 

236.  Extravagance.  The  passion  which  thccomnuHi  peo- 
|)le  (kvelo|)ed  for  theatrical  and  ^dadiatorial  performances 
shows  itself  in  a  marked  way  in  this  pericMl.  Fi^dits  with  wild 
beast->  and  contests  l)ctween  professional  athletes  wr-rc  intro- 
(luce<l  in  ls<i,  an«i  elaborate  musical  entert;iimnenls  about 
twenty  rears  later.  A>  for  the  well-to-do,  \\«'  haxe  noticed  that 
they  spent  their  moin-y  with  the  lavishne>-  characteristic  of 
those  who  lia\e  l>eeome  suddenlv   rich.     Tliev  built  fine  houses 


and  villas,  laid  out  inaj^nificent  o^ardens,  b()Uo;ht  costly  articles 
of  furniture,  mack'  collections  of  works  of  art  and  bric-a-brac, 
and  employed  lar<i;e  numbiMs  of  house  slaves.  Trade  with  the 
Orient  responded  cjuiekly  to  the 
demands  for  articles  of  luxurv  by 
pourinj^  into  Koine  purple  stuffs 
from  Miletus,  jijlassware  and  gar- 
ments of  linen  and  cotton  from 
Eg\j)t,  fine  wines  from  (ireece, 
and  spices  from  Ethiopia  and 
S\  ria. 

« 

237.  Religious  Changes.  The 

cnule  conceptions  whicli  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  earlv  davs  had  of  the 
gods  would  not  harmonize  with 
the  wiih-r  knowledge  which  they 
had  accpiired  from  contact  with 
th<'  outside  world.  I'he  old  r<'li- 
gion  si'cmed  cold,  formal,  and  Iz 
colorless,  t(M>,  in  comparison  with  romax  nT.Ai.iAxou 

the  religions  of  (ireece  and  Asia,  and  ceased  to  satisfy  the  aspira- 
tions of  the  j)eopl(\  The  need  for  something  more  personal  and 
more  spiritual  was  sup|)lied  in  part  by  investing  certain  Roman 
gods  with  the  attributes  of  the  (Inn-k  deities  which  were  most  like 
them,  and  l>y  intnulucing  bodily  the  worship  of  certain  foreign 
gods.  Thus  the  Roman  Jupiter  and  the  Oreek  Zeus  were 
identified,  Juno  and  Hera,  Mercury  and  Hermes,  Mars  and 
Ares,  tlie  worship  of  Serai)is  was  brought  from  Egyj)t,  ;ind  that 
of  (A'bele  from  Asia  Minor.  Reverence  was  still  paid  to  the 
Fares  and  Fenates  in  the  household,  ;ind  the  state  still  main- 
tained the  forms  of  the  ol<l  faith  for  odicial  puri)oses,  but  for 
the  lujuss  of  tlie  pecjple  the  old  religion  was  rapidly  losing  its 
meaning  and  its  restraining  force.  'Fhe  more  intelligent  had 
become  skeptical,  and  the  ccunmon  ])eople  were  laj)sing  into 
the  l(»wer  forms  of  su[)erstition. 


128 


HoMAX    IIISTOKV 


238.   Roman     Poetry.       I*rrli.ii»>    in    tli(>   l.m^^    nm  U<mian 
litcr.itiirt'   Would   li.i\<'  «l<-\cl()|»('<l    in   .1    iiiofc  licaltliy  ;iih1  di.-ir 
actrristic  way,   if  it   had   not    hccii   Itroii^iil   al    llic  onlM-t   under 
(ircck   inlliicnfc.     \Vliat<\(i'  opinion    wc   may   hold    upon    this 


•^«*a!M«^.,r' 


I   II  \  I'l    I       I  \      l!(  <l    SI, 


|)oint,  it  is  iindonl.lcdly  Iruc  ihal  ihc  first  inipnlsc  to  hlcratim- 
came  fn.m  (ircccc.  'I  he  lalhci' of  Hoinan  htcratnrc  was  I/ivius 
Andronicns,  wh<.  u.-i-,  l.ioii;dil  \u  K'omc  after  ih.-  .apturc  of 
Tarcntum  in  _'7_*.      llr  fo..k  ii|»  th«-  t.arhin;^-  of  Latin  an<l  (ireek, 


^\ 


llll      i;<>\I\.\     STAll.    AM)    IIKH    PH()V1X(KS 


129 


and,  lindmj:  no  snitaMc  l)0()k  to  nsc  in  tcachin*]:  Latin,  trans- 
lated the  ()(ly->ry  into  Latin  verse.  Later,  in  240,  when  the 
Romans   wislied  t(.  « clehrate  tlieir  success  over  the  Carthaginians 


A    KO-MAN    Tin.ATRI.     AT     I''>M1M:II 

|,v    a     di.iniatie    festival,    Living    Andronicns    j)ro<hice(l    Latin 
translations  of  a  Creek  tiauvdy  and  a  Creek   comedy,  and   sul>- 


i>  f  Ml  r  wo    S  f  M I  X        N  A  Vi  J>  I  >  I  B-^  I A 


cnMMr-   j;tKix- 


iiP'fefiS* 


(    IM       11(1  IM       \      litMl    l>\ 


se(|nenlh     he    eomj)osed    hymns    lor    another   occasion.     K;)ic, 
(h-amatic,   and    lyric   |)oetry,    therefore,    hejrin    with    him.     'V\\v 


128 


ROMAX    TIISTOKY 


238.  Roman  Poetry.  IVrhaii.s  in  the  lon^  run  Roman 
litcraturt'  wimhl  have  iIcvrlojxMl  in  a  more  hcaltliy  and  cliar- 
acU'ristic  way,  if  it  liad  not  hccn  hrou^dit  at  the  outset  under 
Greek   influenee.      Whatever  opinion   we  may   liold   upon   this 


■>Miik^JUkdhlM^i^fe^ 


i' 


tH  \  i'l    1      IN     n«lUHU 


I>oint,  it  is  undoul»l<*dly  true  that  the  first  impulse  to  literature 
came  from  (Jncee.  M'lie  father  of  Roman  literature  was  I.ivius 
Andronieus,  wh(.  was  l»nHi;'ht  to  Home  id'ter  the  capture  of 
Tarentum  in  272.     Ilr  toi^k  up  the  teaehinjr  of  Latin  and  (n-eek, 


III 


.1 


\d    k 


THE    ROMAN    STATE    AND   HER    PROVINCES 


129 


and,  findmg  no  suital>le  hook  to  use  in  teaeiiinj]:  Latin,  trans- 
lated the  Odyssey  into  Latin  verse.  Later,  in  240,  when  llie 
Romans  wished  to  celebrate  their  success  over  the  Carthaginians 


A  ROMAN  THFATRK  AT  POMPEII 


hy    a    dramatic    festival,    Livius    Andronieus    pro(hieed    Latin 
translations  of  aCJreek  tragedy  and  a  Greek  comedy,  and  sul)- 


P  f  Ml  r  HO    S  t  H I X       N  AV  &  1$  t  B^I A 


CflMMtS    SINtX' 


'■.t!| 


SCKNl.     I'KUM     A     COMI^DY 


sequently    he   composed    hynms   for   another   occasion.     Epic, 
dramatic,    and   lyric  i)oetrv,    therefore,   l)egin   \vil\\   him.     The 

%j  »  •' 


130 


ROMAN    lilsrOKY 


THE    ROMAN    STATE    AND    HER    PROVINCES 


131 


Hist  native  I.at'in  poet  was  Gnaeiis  Nacviiis,  wlio  is  best  known 
for  liis  national  epic,  which  Ver<,nl  lias  tollowed  at  many  points 
in  iheAnffid,  luit  Xacviiis's  ucrk  was  surpassed  hy  the  Annals, 
the  j^reat  e|)ic  juK'ni  of  Hnniiis.  .1  citizen  of  (Vlahria.      In  this 
composition  the  story  of  the  Romans  was  told  from  the  arrival 
of  AcMieas  in  Italy  down  to  the  time  of  tlie  writer.     Some  six 
hnndred  lines  of  tlie  poem  are  extant,  and  they  justify  the  admira- 
tion which  tlie  Romans  had  for  it.     Tins  is  the  flourishing  period 
of  Roman  tragedy,  whicli  rea.  .ud  its  high(\st  point  of  develop- 
ment in  the  dramas  of   I'aeuvins  and  Accius.     Unfortunately 
their  writings  haxc  conu^  down  to  us  only  in  fragments,  so  that 
we  can  form  no  ade(|uate  notion  of  the  merit  of  the  complete 
works.     We  arc  much  more  fortunate  in  the  case  of  comedy. 
Some  twenty  comedies  of  llautus  and  six  of  IVrence  are  extant. 
ThvY  are  translations  or  adaptations  from  the  New  Attic  comedy 
which  flourished  shortly  after  the  death  of  Alexander.     Comedy, 
like  tragedy,  really  begins  and  ends  in  the  years  under  considera- 
tion.    Fn  this  jieriod   satire  also  is  cultivated  by  Ennius  and 

Lucilius. 

239.  Roman  Prose.  The  first  im[)ortant  work  in  Latin 
prose  we  owe  to  Marcus  Poniiis  (\ito.  His  ])urp()se  was  to 
tell  tlie  history  of  his  native  land  and  to  show  that  Latin  as  well 
as  Greek  could  be  used  in  i)rose  com|)osition.  Tn  his  work 
cjilled  the  Onxfines,  he  traced  tlie  history  of  Rome  from  the 
beginning  down  to  the  year  141).  This  l)ook  is  lost,  but  we 
have  his  treatise  On.  Afjrirulture,  which  was  very  likely  intended 
in  part  to  check  the  growing  tendency  to  give  up  agricvdture 
for  commercial  occupations.  We  know  from  statements  made 
b\-  writers  in  the  first  century  Ijefore  our  era  that  the  great 
speech  wliicli  Appius  daudius  ( kecus  delivered  in  the  senate 
in  2S0  against  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  Pyrrhus  was 
written  out  and  handed  down  to  succeeding  generations,  but 
it  was  Cato  who  first  ina.le  a  colliH'tion  of  speeches.  One 
huntlred  and  fifty  of  liis  orations  were  kiu)\vn  in  Cicero's  time, 
and  were  held  in  high  regard.  The  natural  bent  of  his  mind 
turned  the  Roman  to  the  study  of  law,  an( I  in  the    early   part 


of  the  second  century  systematic  works  on  legal  subjects  l)egan 
to  appear.  The  three  forms  of  literature  mentioned  al)ove — 
history,  oratory,  and  jurisprudence— proved  to  be  the  most 
characteristic  types  of  Roman  i)rose,  and  it  is  interesting  to 
l)ear  the  fact  in  mind  tliat  two  of  them  originated  with  Cato, 
the  sturdy  and  unconi[)romising  representative  of  everything 
Roman. 

240.  Summary  of  Events  at  Home  from  264tol33B.  C. 
It  is  clear  that  tliroughout  this  i)erif)d  affairs  at  home  jmd  abroad 
were  managed  by  the  senate,  which  found  means  to  control  the 
magistrates  and  hold  in  check  popular  leadens.  Abroad,  the 
point  of  greatest  ])olitical  interest  was  the  develo|)inent  of  pro- 
vincial government,  which  was  inefficient,  but  gave  the  i)rovincials 
law  and  ordiT.  At  home,  in  the  country  districts  slave  labor,  the 
sale  of  imported  grain  at  low  prices,  and  the  growth  of  large 
estates  were  ruining  the  small  farmer;  in  the  city  great  fortunes 
were  actpiired  in  trade  with  the  provinces,  and  the  knights  be- 
came influential.  Contact  with  Greece  and  the  East  led  to  the 
introduction  of  new  inventions  and  industries,  to  important 
changes  in  the  Roman  religion  and  cliaracter,  and  to  the 
devel()j)ment  of  literature.  Taken  all  in  all,  the  concjuest  of 
ISlcditerranean  lands  brought  about  profound  changes  in  the 
Roman  character  and  civiUzation. 


THE   (ONQIKST   OF    OAfl.    AND    OF    ASIA    MINOR 


i:« 


ciiAPTKU  vni 

TIIF    (ONtil    ISI     ol     «;\l    I,     WO    ol      \.SI\     MINOR 

(i;«     VJ    U.   C.) 

II(tw  thrciuKiufst  of  (Jjiiil  by  ( ';i>s;ir  and  "f  Ami  Minor  by  I'onipry  cliaiij^tMl 
ImjHi  leal  roiulii  ions,  an<I  l>routrht  niouarchy  U'';irtr. 

241.  Gallia  Narbonensis  Organized  as  a  Province  about 

118  B.  C.  "^riir  coiKincsl  of  ( 'is.'ilpiiic  (J;ml  in  the  early  |>nrt 
nf  tlic  x'coikI  «'(*iitiiry  li.-bl  cariird  llir  liiiiil>  of  Hoinaii  tcrrifory 
to  [\\v  Alj)s.  luiv  a  hall"  rciiliiry  tlicrraftci-  flicsc  inoiiiilains 
were  acc(|>t(M|  as  a  nahnal  fnmlirr,  Iml,  tlianks  lo  inads  and 
colonics,  in  llicsc  (illy  years  lli<-  dislriel  lo  llic  sonHi  of  (lie  Alj)s, 
known  as  ri^;d|»ine  (Janl,  liad  <le\'clo|M-d  so  t-a|>idly  tlial  tlic 
^rcat  retnrns  uliicli  ca|»ilal  and  indiistiT  win  in  a  new  land 
Were  III*  lonijer  to  Ite  liail,  and  llie  ea^'er  inercliant  and  eapi- 
lalist  wefe  easlinjL;;  <-ovelons  j.';!-""'"^  aer<»s  llie  Alps,  and 
wailinji:  inipalii-ntly  for  tlie  time  when  Uoniaii  arms  .shonld 
open  the  country  to  trade.  'Hie  need  of  Ketlcr  coinninnication  . 
between  Italy  ;ind  the  Spains  was  also  appai'cnl.  An  oppor- 
tunity to  accomplish  hoth  these  dhjects  was  olFcrcd  in  12')  hv 
the  reipicst  which  the  city  of  Mas.silia  mad(  tor  help  aj.':ainst 
the  tribes  to  the  north  of  her.  An  expedition  was  willin<^|y 
sent  to  her  relief.  v\lii<'h  bnju;i:hl  the  hostile  tribes  to  submission 
without  serious  dilllculty.  In  fact,  the  ^^Teater  part  of  southern 
(laul  was  subdued  and  ori^ani/,cd  into  a  pro\'inec  whieh  took 
its  niiiuc  of  (iallia  Narbonensis  fi-oni  the  Honiaii  <-(.li(ii\-  otjib- 
lished  at  its  ca]>ital,  Xarbo,  on  the  icconstructed  \'ia  l>omiti,i 
from  the  Khone  to  Spain. 

242.  The  First  Province  of  a  New  Empire.  Witli  the 
oerupatirm  of  southern  (raul  a  new  chaot<'r  of  expansion  begins. 
Just  as  the  passa<;c  of  the  Straits  ui    .Vii  ..^ina  had  led  on  step  by 

132 


> 


w 


I 


/■> 


i 

I' 


step  to  the  uccpiisition  of  Sicily,  Sardinia,  northern  Africa,  and 
Spain,  so,  when  the  tide  of  con(piest  had  once  passed  beyond 
the  Alps,  its  prot^ress  was  not  st()j)ped  until  it  had  swept  across 
(iaul,  (jcrniany,  and  even  Hritain.  The  j)etty  successes  of 
Fulvius  and  Fabius  over  the  Arverni  and  their  nei<jhbors  were 
the  forerunners  of  the  <.^reat  conquests  of  Julius  Caesar,  of  Tiber- 
ius, and  of  a  lonj^  line  of  victorious  lead<'rs,  and  Gallia  Narbo- 
nensis was  the  first  j)rovince  <jf  the  «>reat  empire  which  within 
the  ne.xt  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  the  Romans  created  in 
central  Europe. 
243.  Invasion   by  the    Cimbri  and  Teutones,   113-101 

B.  C.  '^rhe  immediate  efVect,  however,  of  the  |)olicy  of  expand- 
ing to  the  north  was  disastrous.  IlilhcTto  Roman  territory 
liad  I)een  protected  a^^ainst  the  tribes  of  central  KurojH^  by  bar- 
riers of  mountains  I'aly  by  the  Alps,  .Spain  by  the  IVrenees. 
Now  Rome  was  called  upon  to  maintain  her  authority  in  a 
rejxion  whieh  had  no  such  bulwark  behind  it.  'i'he  (Jallic 
tribes  in  the  past  ha<l  furnished  an  additional  barrier  a<:^ainstthe 
incursions  of  the  northern  people,  but  th(^  co!i(piesl  of  their 
country  by  the  Romans  had  broken  their  sj>i!-it,  so  that  when 
in  thesiM'ond  <'enlury  n  c,  a  horde  of  (icrmaii  warriors  advanced 
southward  from  their  homes  on  the  Raltic  Sea,  they  met  little 
ell'ccti\e  resistance  from  tlie  (Jallic  tribes  on  the  frontiers  of 
tlie  Roman  territory.  These  (ierman  peoples,  known  as  tlie 
Cimbri  and  Teutr)nes,  were  not  makinjjj  a  simj)le  incursion  into 
Roman  t<'rritor\'  for  the  sake  of  bootv,  but  w^ere  accompanied 
by  tfieir  wives  and  children,  and  were  planninji;  lo  seize  and 
oc<iipy  any  territory  which  seemed  available.  Their  w;ir- 
riors,  ji;iants  in  stature,  clad  in  heavy  coats  of  mail,  and  armed 
with  powwful  sw(»rds,  were  bound  to  one  another  in  battle 
with  thonj^s,  as  it  was  said,  so  that  their  lines  could  not  be 
broken,  'fhey  had  already  defeated  the  Ronuuis  in  three 
pitched  battles,  when  (iaius  Marius,  th<'  j!;reat  popular  leader 
who  liad  just  brouj^dit  a  difHcult  war  in  Africa  to  a  successful 
termination,  took  the  field  aj^ainst  them. 


134 


ROM  AX    Til  STORY 


THE   CONQUEST    «»!•    GAUL  AND   OF  ASIA    MINOR 


135 


244.  Battles  at  Aquae  Sextiae  in  102  B.  C,  and  on  the 
Raudine  Plains  in  101  B.  C.  T\w  enemy  sought  to  enter 
Italy  at  two  points.  The  Teiitones  with  their  allies  ad- 
vanced along  the  coast  of  southern  (rani,  while  the  Cinibri 
were  to  force  an  entrance  by  way  of  Illyricuni.  Marius  hiin^ 
self  met  tlie  Teutones  at  Aqujr  S(>xtia'  and  destroyed  their  army, 
and  in  the  following  year  hastened  into  Italy  to  relieve  Catulus, 
who  had  been  obliged  to  retire  before  the  ('iml)ri.  The  two 
Iloman  forces  engaged  tlie  enemy  on  the  Raudine  Plains  near 
Vercelhe,   and  annihilated   their  entire  force  of  one  hundred 

thousand  men. 

245.  Caesar's  Conquest  of  Gaul,  58-50  B.  C.  Henceforth 
for  several  centuries  Italy  had  no  occasion  to  fear  an  inroad 
of  the  l)arbarians,  and  for  nearly  lialf  a  century  i)eace  along 
the  northern  frontier  was  broken  only  l)y  lh<'  occasional  upris- 
iniTs  of  iH'llv  tribes.  But  in  oS  b.  r.  tlie  Roman  jtrovince  in 
southern  (iaul  and  the  pcoph-s  to  the  north  of  it  ^vere  threatened 
by  a  movement  not  imlik*-  that  of  the  riml)ri  and  Teutones. 
In  that  year  the  Ilclvetii,  to  the  munber  of  Uiree  hundred  and 
.sixty-eight  tliousand,  who  had  l(.ng  been  making  preparations 
for  the  puri»»se,  >et  out  from  their  old  home  with  their  wives 
and  children,  to  seek  new  lands  to  the  west.  To  check  this 
movement  <'.  Julius  (  acsar,  who  liad  been  consul  the  preceding 
year,  was  made  governor  of  the  three  provinces  of  (Tsalpine 
Gaul,  Illyricum,  and  Transalpine  Ciaul,  and  conunander  of 
the  troops  .i^igned  to  the  protection  of  tliesc  |M-ovinecs,  for 
a  period  of  five  years  counting  fr(»m  ^lareh  1,  o9  B.  C.  March- 
ing rapidly  to  tlie  north,  Caesar  forced  the  Ilclvetii  to  give  up 
their  intention  of  |)assing  through  the  province,  and  ultimately 
defeated  them  near  Bibracte  and  oblige*!  them  to  return  to  their 
own  country.  Later  in  the  year  the  dermans,  who  had  <  ro^M d 
tlic  Rhine  into  Gaul,  were  forced  to  return  and  to  accejH  the 
Rhine  as  marking  the  limits  of  their  territory.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  he  reduced  the  confederated  states  of  the  Belgae, 
whicli  occui>ie(l  the  territory  between  the  the  Seine  and  the 
Uliinc,  and   penetr;i.te*l  t«»  tlie    North  Sea.     He  even   made   two 


r 

i 


/    \ 


expeditions  across  the  Channel  into  Britain.  No  nujre  serious 
movements  occurred  in  Caesar's  provinces  until  52  h.  c  In 
that  year  the  (iauls  found  an  able  commander  in  their  chief 
Vercingetorix.  He  gave  strict  orders  to  his  own  people  and 
their  allies  to  burn  all  their  towns  and  their  stores,  and  with 
his  cavalry  he  swept  through  tlie  country  and  laid  it  waste, 
in  order  that  the  enemy  might  be  starved  into  submission. 
Never  before  had  Caesar  been  reduced  to  such  straits.  His 
soldiers  were  nearly  famished;  his  assault  ui)on  the  stronghold 
of  Gergovia  was  beaten  back,  and  the  Gallic  cavalry  liarasscd 
his  troo})s  in  their  retreat  to  the  north.     But  in  spite  of  all  Uiese 


OAl'L 

In  thf  time  "f 
CESAR. 


dilhculties  (^lesar  succeeded  in  shutting  up  Vercingetorix  in 
his  fortified  camj)  at  Alesia.  Emissaries  sent  throughout  (iaul 
by  the  beleaguered  town  brought  to  its  succor  a  fresh  army  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  men,  but  the  legionaries  not 
only  succeeded  in  rei)elling  the  relief  party,  but  maintained  so 
<?fTective  a  blockade  of  the  town  that  Vercingetorix  was  finally 
compelled  to  yield,  and  riding  into  Caesar's  camp  surrendered 
to  his  conqueror.  The  Gallic  chief  was  kept  a  prisoner,  to 
lend  distinction  to  the  triumph  of  Caesar,  and  to  atone  by  death 


136 


ROMAN'    FT  I.STORY 


THE    CONQUEST    OF    GAUT.    WD    OF    ASIA    MINOR 


137 


at  tlu'  li:*n(ls  of  the  |Hil>Iic  r\(Miiti(>iicr  Inr  lii>  l»i;i\c  roi  Liiice 
to  the  Romans. 

246.  The  New  Empire  in  the  North.  Tlic  fall  .,r  Alcsia 
put  an  end  to  all  serious  resist;, me  in  (Jaiil,  and,  as  a  rrsnlt 
of  tlie  cainpaijj^ns  wliidi  \im\  In-^itu  M\vn\y-ii\v  years  before 
with  tile  expedition  to  the  relief  of  Mussilia,  Roman  authority 
was  now  reeo<!;nize<l  in  liel^dca,  (Jallia  Xarbofieiisi.s,  and  in  the 
districts  known  later  as  A(jinf.inia  and  Gallia  Lu<(<lnnensis, 
/.  ('.,  throu<,diout  the  U'rHtorj  now  covered  l,y  France  and  the 
Netherlands. 

247.  Conditions  in  the  East.  Almost  as  noteworthy 
additi(»ns  were  made  to  the  Koman  empire  in  ihe  J^.ist  in  the 
jHriod  which  we  are  studyin^^-,  and  the  snccessfnl  completion 
of  the  wars  of  eoiKpiest  in  the  West  and  in  the  Hast  liy  C'uesar 

and  Pompey  res|.cetlvely  made  tlu-se  tW(.  men  rivals  for  the 
control  of  the  lu»man  world,  and  pnt  the  n  public  in  jeo})ar(ly. 
One  of  the  weakest  ..f  the  stales  \\liieh  R(.me  left  in  Asia  Minor 
after  her  defeat  of  Aniiochiis,  kin<,r  of  Syria,  was  the  linlc  kino- 
<lom  of  1/onlns  on  the  sonlheastern  ((.a>l  of  the  Knxine.  For 
many  years  Fontn^  was  the  failhfnl  ally  of  Iconic,  but,  witli 
tlic  accession  of  Mithridalo  the  Creat  in  11  I,  she  chan<,H'd  her 
jMiiicy.  The  new  kini:  was  a  man  of  indomitabh'  energy,  of 
versatility,  aiid  of  oreal  political  ability.  Without  serious 
difficulty  he  made  himself  master  of  the  (Iwrk  setth'inents 
alon^r  the  north  shore  of  the  Knxine,  of  llie  states  in  Asia  Minor 
which  had  been  allied  with  Rome,  and  of  the  islands  alon^ 
the  coast. 

248.  The  Three  Wars  with  Mithridates,  88-84,  83-81, 

74-63  B.  C.  But  his  attempt  to  <»ccn|)y  (Heece  was  thwarted 
by  tlie  R(.man  leader  Snlla,  and  he  was  h.rced  to  oivt.  u[)  his 
conquests  in  .Vsia  Minor.  The  Irregular  ho.stili'ties  which 
followed  the  cotu-lusion  of  peace  took  the  form  of  o{)en  war 
in  74  wlicn  the  kino'dom  of  Hithynia,  which  had  been  a  builVr 
slate  between  I*ontus  and  the  pn.vince  (.f  Asia,  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans.      LncnJhis,  who  conunanded  the  Roman 


^L 


irl 


troops,  drove  Mithridates  out  of  Pontus,  defeated  the  army  of 
his  son-in-law  Tignuuvs,  the  kiu";  of  Armenia,  with  whom  he 
had  taken  refuge,  and  seemed  on  tlie  point  of  bringing  the  war 
to  lui  end;  l)Ut,  before  he  could  make  his  eonciuests  permanent, 
his  soldiers,  who  were  clamoring  for  release  from  service, 
mutinied,  and  the  senate  at  Roiue,  listening  to  the  tax-contractors, 
whose  exorbitant  demands  Lucullus  had  cheeked,  transferred 
his  command  to  another. 

249.  Pompey  Subdues  the  Pirates  in  67  B.  C.  The 
recall  of  Lucullus  and  the  diversion  of  Roman  energy  to  the 
supi)ressi<)nof  piracy  in  the  eastern  ^rediterranean  gave  Mithri- 
dates and  Tigranes  an  opportunity  to  recover  their  strength 
and  to  regain  some  of  tlie  territory  taken  from  them  by  Lucullus. 
From  the  l>eginning  of  the  war  with  Mithridates  the  i)irates 
Imd  taken  advantage  of  tlie  turmoil  to  ply  their  trade  vigorously 
along  the  coast  of  Asia  Mu\in\  With  the  progress  of  the  war 
their  numbers  and  their  boldness  increased.  "Tliey  fell  ui)on 
unfortified  towns,"  as  Applan  tells  us.  "They  undermined 
or  battered  down  the  walls  of  othci-s.  They  carried  olf  the 
wealthier  citizens  to  their  haven  of  refuge  and  held  them  for  ran- 
som. .  .  .  They  had  castles  and  towers  and  desert  ishuids  and 
retreats  everywhere.  .  .  .  When  the  Romans  could  no  longer  en- 
dure the  damage  and  disgrace  they  nuide  (Jnaeus  romi)ey,  who 
was  then  their  man  of  greatest  reinitation,  conunander  by  law 
for  three  years,  with  al)solute  i)ower  over  the  whole  sea  within 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules,  and  of  the  lan<l  for  a  distance  of  four 
hundred  stades  from  the  coast.  .  .  .  Never  did  any  man  before 
Pompey  set  forth  with  so  great  authority  conferred  ui>on  him  by 
the  l^onians.  .  .  .  The  terror  of  his  name  and  the  greatness  of 
his  j)reparations  produced  a  panic  among  the  robbers.  .  .  . 
Within  a  few  days  lie  took  seventy-one  ships  by  capture  and 
three  hundred  and  six  by  surrender  from  the  pirates,  and  one 
hundred  and  twenty  of  their  towns,  castles,  and  other  places  of 
rendezvous.  About  ten  thousand  of  the  pirate>i  xere  slain  in 
battle." 


138 


KOAIAN    HISTORY 


250.  Pompey  Brings  to  an  End  the  Third  Mithridatic 
War,  66-63  B.  C.     PomiH-y  was  still  in  ('iliciii,  the  country  of 

the  I'iniU's,  when  tlu-  ShinW'uin  law  addnl  to  liis  naval  power  the 
irovcrnorsiiii)  of  Bithynia  and  (liitia,  and  tlic  c-onclnci  of  the 
war  a<^ain>t  Milliri<lal«-s  and  'l^i-ranrs.  It  was  in  support  ol* 
thi.slaw,andasarcpresenlatIviM)f  tlie  great  middle  class,  whose 
interests  as  inercliant-,.  hankers,  and  tax-c.nlraelors  were  imper- 
illed hy  the  situation  in  the  ICasl.  that  Marcus  I'ullius  (^icero 
conies  into  prouiinenrc  as  a  political  leader.  Alter  i'onipey  s 
assumption  of  the  comnumd  in  A>ia  events  moved  rapidly. 
He  drove  Mitlu'idates  out  of  Ponlu.  and  forced  him  to  lake 
rcFno-e  (.11  the  north  -h,.n.  of  llie  iMixine.  He  entered  Armenia, 
and  received  the  uooindilional  >urivn.ler  of  Ti-^ranes.^  All 
this  was  accomplished  in  the  tirst  year's  cainpalun.  AVitliin 
the  next  two  years  he  aime\»'d  Syria.,  took  Jerusidem,  and 
restored  order  in  l*alestinc.  While  on  lli^  way  lowanl  Jerusa- 
lem in  th-  sprin":  of  (')->  he  Irarned  that  MIthridate-,  deM'rted 
by  his  favorile  .v,n  Pharna<v..  and  aha.idoned  hy  his  trooi^s. 
had  taken  his  own  life.  \Vith  the  .leatli  ..f  Mithridates,  and 
the  voluntary  ~,nl»nii^^ion  of  Pharnaee.,  resistance  to  iioman 
authority  in  Asia,  Atinor  came  to  an  e:ul. 

251.  Pompey's  Triumph  on  returning  to  Rome.     Pom- 

|M-'.  conducts  in  the  East  made  a  dr---  imi)re.sMon  or.  the 
iniaj^ination  of  the  lionuins  tlian  did  < 'ae.ar's  more  noteworthy 
achievements  in  Gaul.  Plutarch  uives  us  an  enthusiastic 
descri[)tion  of  the  triumph  wliich  he  celel)rated  after  his  return 
to  the  city.  "In  it  tal>le^  w<t<>  carricil,  inscribed  witli  the  names 
and  titles  of  the  nation^  v^ci  -  hich  he  triumphe<L  .  .  .  There 
was  set  fortli  in  the^e  tallies  an  account  of  all  the  tributes 
throughout  tlie  empire,  and  how  that  before  these  conquests 
the  revenue  amounted  but  to  fifty  millions,  whereas  from  his 
acquisitions  they  had  a  revemie  of  eighty-five  millions.  The 
prisoners  of  war  that  were  led  in  triumph,  besides  the  chief 
pirates,  were  the  son  of  Tigranes,  king  of  Afmenia,  with  his 
wife  and  daughter;  as  also  Zosime,  wife  of  king  Tigranes  him- 
self, and  Aristubulus  'king  of  Judica,  the  sister  of  King  ^Fith- 


THE    CONQUEST   OF    GAUL    AND    Ol'    ASIA    MIXOR 


139 


I 

r 


f 


4 


If 


A     > 


ridates  and  tier  five  sons,  and  some  Scythian  wr)men."  At 
th(^  head  of  the  ])roeession  which  entered  bv  one  of  the  city 
o-ates  and  i):issed  throu2;h  tiie  Forum  along  the  Sacred  Way 
to  the  Capitol,  were  the  senate  and  the  magistrates.  Behind 
tlie  tablets,  the  trophies,  tlie  captives,  and  the  white  bulls 
intended  for  sacrifice,  preceded  by  lictors  with  tlieir  fasces 
crowned  witli  laurels,  came  Pompey  standing  in  a  chariot 
drawn  by  four  horses.  He  wore  a  gold-embroidered  rotje  and  a 
flowered  tunic.  In  his  nrht  hand  he  held  a  laurel  bough;  in 
his  left  a  sceptre,  and  on  his  head  rested  a  laurel  wreath.  The 
streets  and  stpiares  were  crowded  witli  ])eople;  die  shrines  were 
decorated  with  flowers,  and  througli  the  open  doors  of  every 
temoh^  could  be  s(^en  thi-  smoke  of  incense  rising  from  the  altars. 

252.  The  Credit  due  to  Pompey.  Pompey  well  deserved 
the  honors  which  his  fellow-citizens  paid  him  on  his  return. 
In  threc^  years  he  had  brought  to  an  (Mid  a  state  of  hostility 
which  ha«l  alternated  between  r)p(>n  war  and  armed  truce  for 
a  (juarter  of  ;i  century.  lie  estal)lished  |)ermanent  peace  where 
his  pre<UMc.>sor.,  Sulla  and  Lucullus,  liad  only  secured  a  tempo- 
rary cessation  of  hostilities.  P>ut  it  is  only  fair  to  Sulla,  and  to 
Lucullus  especially,  to  renn'mln  r  that  lh(y  broke  th(>  ])ower  of 
.Midiridates  and  shattered  his  prestige.  It  was  Pom{)ey's 
good  fortiHie  to  grasp  tlie  laurels  wdiich  they  had  brought  within 

his  reach. 

253.  Political  Reorganization   of    Asia   Minor.     In  his 

political  reorganization  of  Asia  Minor  his  policy  w^as  so  thorough 
and  so  wise  that  his  arrangements  were  left  without  important 
change  for  many  d(H'ades.  Western  Pontus  and  Bithynia  were 
united  and  Syria  was  made  a  province,  jdthough  certain  prin- 
cii)alities  were  still  allowed  to  exist  within  its  borders.  Out- 
side of  these  districts,  and  of  tlie  province  of  Asia,  the  rest  of 
Asia  ?.Iinor  was  left  in  tlie  hands  of  princes  whose  fidelity  to 
Rome  was  un(iuestioned. 

254.  The  Financial  Condition  of  Asia.  The  management 
of  Asiatic  finances  shows  a  steady  improvement  from  the  time 
of  Sulla  to  that  of  Pompey.     When  Mithridates  in  his  early 


140 


ROMAN    rn STORY 


cainpaiixns  liad  made  liirnsclf  master  of  Asia,  he  courted  the 
poimlarity  of  the  i>roviiHiaIs  hy  releasin-j;  tliem  altonvth.'r 
from  the  payment  of  tribute.  The  taxes  were  thus  left  uni>aid 
for  five  years,  and  one  of  Sulhi's  first  measures,  after  recon- 
querin^ij  the  province,  was  to  re<pure  these  arrears  of  taxes, 
as  well  as  an  indemintv  f<.r  the  war  of  twenty  thousand  talents. 
To  meet  these  demand.,,  "the  cities,"  as  Ai)i)ian  tells  us,  "bor- 
rowed money  at  Iiigh  rates  of  interest  and  m()rt;raged  their 
theatres,  their  gymnasiums,  their  walls,  their  harbors,  and 
every  other  scrap  of  juiblie  property."  From  the  financial 
ruin   whirh   the  exactions  of  Sulla  brought   upon  the  country 


ASIA     Mrvou     ATTHK    CLOSi:     CtF     POMI'Ky's     CONQrTKSTS 

Lucullns  relieved  the  jjcoplc  in  a  measure  by  checking  the  un- 
just methods  of  the  puhjintiii,  or  taxgaUierers,  and  ]>y  cutting 
down  tlie  rate  of  interest  to  twelve  per  cent.  Pompey  in  his 
turn  sup|)rcsscd  the  i)iratcs  who  had  preyed  upon  the  sliips 
tradin<,'  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  had  plundered  the  coast 
towns;  ln'  restore<l  luw  and  order;  he  guarded  the  frontiers,  and 
lie  cave  a  large  n>easu''e  of  freedom  t(;  the  commercial  towns. 

265.  Effect  on  the  Home  Government  of  the  Policy 
of  Expansion.  \\\  the  concpiesls  of  T'aesar  and  Pompey  the 
frontiers  of  tln'  riii[>ire  AVcre  j)ushed  on  the  eastern  border  to 


Tin:   CONCiUEST    OF   CiAUl.    AND    OF    ASIA    MINOR 


141 


the  Euphrates,  north  to  the  Uhine,  and  weslward  to  the  Atlantic, 
while   the   enlire   Mediterranean    coast,    with    tlu^   exception   (>f 
Maurclania,  was  brought  under  Roman  control.     The  acquisi- 
tion of  this  great  territory  aiul  the  pro- 
visions made  for  its  government  had  a 
reflex  ellVct  upon  the  character  of  the 
home   government    and    the   relative 
importance    of    the     elements    which 
inadc>  it  up.      Practices  altogrthcr  out 
of  harmony  with    tradition  were 
ad()])ted,   and    unwritten  laws   which 
had  thwart(>d  the  projects  of  ambitious 
leaders  in  the  past  were  violated.     I'o 
put    it    briefly,    the    ohl    machinery  (»f 
govcrmnent    broke   down    under    the 
strain  put    u|)()n    it   by  the   demands 
of  imperialism.  The  traditional  preju- 
dice against  the  reelection  of  the  chief 
mairistrate   was   thrown    to   the   winds 
when  ^larius  was  elected  six  times  to 
the  consulship.     A  similar  jMriXMlcnt 
was  violated  when  Caesar   was  matle 
|)n>C{)nsul     for    hve  years,    and    when 
Pompey    was   given    charge   of    the    hjrces    acting    against    the 
pirates  for  a  ]ieriod  of  thn-e  years.     The  very  length  of  their 
terms  of  odice  freed  Pomi)ey  and  ( ^lesar  in  large  measure  from 
the  danger  of  being  held  to  account  for  their  actions,  and  rendered 
imj)ractical)le    any    serious    jittemjJts    whicli    the    senate    miglit 
make  to  control  the  direction  of  campaigns.     In  the  old  days 
the   senate  limited   tli(^   powers   of   its   commanders    and    kejit 
them  in  hand  l)y  holding  back  the  appropriation  l)ills.     This 
policy  was  now  given  up.     Indeed,  it  is  remarkable  thfvt  Rome 
carried  on  her  long  foreign  wars  successfully  on  the  old  plan. 
When  Pompey  assumed  command  against  the  i)irates  he  \vas 
granted  an  unlimited  imperium;  he  was  authorizinl  to  collect 
all  the  troops  and  supplies  he  might  need,  and  Roman  officials 


TOMB    or    A    CKNTUUlON 


Jl*Xad 


IMM  \\    iiisiokY 


and  allit'd  slalrs  wcr-  iHivcti'd  to  lender  liim  all  iio.ssibie  assist- 
ance. Such  itowcrs  ntade  liini  not  the  mihtary  rej»re.sentative 
of  the  senate,  nor  even  of  the  state,  l)Ut  an  indej)endent  Eastern 

nionareh.  Tlie  lon<j^  te  r  in  s  \v  h  i  e  Ii 
nichiy  of  the  sohheis  serxcd  under 
Marius,  Sulla,  Ponipey,  and  Caesar 
turned  tlieir  feeling  of  allegianee  away 
froiii  tlie  senate  or  the  peo])le  to  their 
niilitarv  leader,  wliile  for  the  many 
forei;iners  who  served  in  the  Gallic 
iuiny  patriotism  meant  little  more 
tlian  loyalty  to  Caesar.  In  a  word, 
the  develoj)ment  of  a  colonial  em})ire 
had  transferred  the  real  power  from 
the  senate  to  the  commanders  of  the 
armies. 

-  256.  Summary  Account  of  the 
Conquests  of  Gaul  and  Asia  Minor, 
133-49  B.C.  In  this  period  we  have 
seen  Rome  extend  her  conquests  in 
the  West  and  in  the  East  under  her 
two  great  leadcis  Caesar  and  Pom- 
l»cy.  The  occupation  of  southern 
Gaul  was  necessary  to  give  her  direct  connnunication  with  S[)ain 
hy  land,  and  to  protect  this  territory  from  the  tribes  to  the  north 
the  com  I  nest  of  all  Gaul  bv  Caesar  seemed  necessary.  In  the 
East,  pirac}'  was  su|)pressed,  and  Asia  Minor  reorganized  under 
Roman  authority.  The  result  for  the  home  government  was 
to  l)uild  up  great  armies  of  veterans  under  abl(>  leaders,  and 
to  make  il  possible  iuv  the  armj  tii  control  the  -late. 


TOMB  OF  A  (5T.VNi;AHD  BE.1RER 


^ 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  63  B.C. 

Roman  Territory  in  00  B.C. 
Territiry  ac'iuireil  by  Pompfv. 


X 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  44  B.C. 

Roman  Territory  in  50  B.C., 
Territory  ae.fiir.  1  '.y  Catsar. 


DEVELOPMKNT  OF  ROMAN  TKHRITORY  FROM  133  TO  44  B.C. 


4  t 


112 


ItOM  V.\     ilisluin 


and  allicl  si;'  uiv  "liivclcd  to  i-i-iidiM"  liitn  all  |M.^->il)ic  a>M.st- 
aiK  <•-  Siicli  pDwcis  iifadr  liiiii  iiol  the  niilitai'v  r<'|M-c>('iitati\(' 
(jf  the  senate,  iiortArii  of  the   -late,  (ml  at)  hidi'peiidciil  I^astcrn 

iiifHiarc  li.  The  loiijj,-  lernis  wliieli 
iii.iiiv  of  tlie  soldic-  -rpxcd  undei' 
Alaiiiis,  ^iilla,  I'oiiipey,  and  ( 'aesar 
tinned  tlieif  feeling"  of  alle;.rian(  e  awav 
fron.  till  -r!iate  or  the  ]>e()j)le  to  theii 
iiiilitarv  leader,  while  U)i  the  many 
f()fei;r!ier<  who  ser\ed  in  tin-  (jalli( 
army  jiatriotisni  meant  iiMliJ  more 
than  loval!^'  lo  Caesar.  In  a  word, 
tile  development  of  a  eoloiiial  empire 
had  transferred  the  real  power  fr(nn 
the.^enaU'  I*-  the  eonnnander>  of  llic 
armies. 

-    256.  Summary  Account  of   the 
Conquests  of  Gaul  and  Asia  Minor, 

133-49  B.C.  hi  this  peri«»(l  we  have 
seen  lioine  extend  her  eon(jUe>l>  in 
the  \\f>i  and  m  the  Ivisl  under  her 
-  two  <;-reat  leader^  (';uar  aii<l  I'om- 
,  'I'he    i.eenpatioii    of    southern 

Gaul  was  neee  ^ar\  toirivt-  her  direct  eonnnunieation  with  Spain 
hy  land,  and  to  [»rnter|  thi>  territory  from  the  tril»e>  to  the  nc^rth 
lh(  coiKineNl  of  all  Craul  l»y  ( "ae>ar  seemed  necessary.  In  the 
East,  piracy  w  a.>  >U[)prr->e<l,  and  Asia  Minor  i\'or<i-anized  under 
Iii»'iian  authoiity.  The  resuil  h;r  the  home  ;i'overmnent  was 
to  Inn  Id  itp  iiieat  armies  of  veieians  under  ;il>Ic  leader^,  and 
to  m.tivi  It  i-«.     ;'  ti:  U>r  the  .i!in\   lo  control   the  -l.ttc. 


L_  ■' 


TOMB  OF  A  biANLvlclJ  Bl 


•^ 


ROMAN   TERRITORY 
in  63  B.C. 


ROMAN  TERRITORY 
in  44  B.C. 


1)KV1    lAM' 


Mi    Nl    111     hi>\l\\     I  1   I'.UI  1 'liO     i   !iOM     l;io    TO    44    H. 


CIIAPTEIl  IX 


\i 


THE  iJEGINM\(;  OI    THE  KEVoLL  TlON 
(133-40    B.    C.) 

How  The  struf^fflo  acrainsf  tlir  s^nato  aiKi  tho  rich,  boginning  under  the 
Gracchi,  was  advanced  by  Mariiis,  was  chock.-.l  by  Sulla,  and  developed  into 
a  personal  contest  between  Caesar  and  Ponip.-y  for  the  supreme  power. 

257.  The  Desire  of  Tiberius  Gracchus  to  Relieve  the 
Poor.  We  have  already  had  occasion  to  notice  that  the  lon<T 
,  wars  abroad,  the  acquisition  of  provinces,  the  accumuhition 
of  large  fortunes,  and  the  development  of  slavery  had  driven 
Italian  farmers  into  bankruptcy,  and  left  the  farm  laborer  and 
the  free  artisan  without  employment.  The  middle  class  which 
m  the  past  had  given  the  social  organization  its  strength  and 
stability  was  thereby  blotted  out  of  existence,  and  the  move- 
ment whicOi  Tiberius  Gracchus  led  in  the  period  now  under 
consideration  had  for  its  object  to  build  this  cla.ss  up  again. 

258.  His  Motives.  He  was  a  man  of  the  people  by  sym- 
pathy rather  than  by  birtli,  because  his  family  and  his  family 
connections  were  all  aristocratic.  To  the  sympathy  which 
they  and  other  powerful  personal  friends  felt  for  tlie  movement 
the  reforms  of  Tiberius  and  Gains  owed  ni  some  degree  that 
measure  of  success  whicli  they  won.  Many  of  the  more  pro- 
gressive Romans,  like  Tiberius's  grandfather  Africanus,  had 
sliown  then-  hostility  to  the  new  aristocracy  of  wealth,  or 
had  dreamed  of  lightening  the  burdens  of  the  common  people, 
but  they  lacked  the  ability  to  formulate  measures  of  relief,  or 
the  energy  to  carry  them  through,  It  was  left  to  Tiberius  and 
his  brother  to  translate  their  ])assive  sympathy  into  action. 

259.  His  Agrarian  Measure.  Tiberius  thought  that  he 
could  relieve  the  distressed  by  a.ssigning  state  lands  to  citizens. 
With  this  purpose  in  mind,  he  secured  an  election  to  the  tribunate 
for  the  year  133,  and  at  once  proposed  a  reenactment  of  tliat 

113 


144 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


THE  beginning;  of  the  revoltttto?^ 


145 


clause  of  the  Liciniaii  law  which  hinited  the  anidimt  of  puhlic 
land  to  be  held  by  an  individual  to  five  hundietl  iugera,  with 
the  niodifiealioii  that  h)r  each  of  two  «j^ro\vii  sons  two  hundred 
and  fifty  iiujera  in  addition  slunild  he  allowed.  The  land 
which  would  in  this  way  l)e  brought  aj^ain  under  the  control 
of  the  state  was  to  be  leased  on  the  payment  of  an  annual  rental. 
A  standing  eonimission  of  three,  whose  members  were  to  be 
chosen  each  year,  ^v.n^^o  c^t;|<^ont  the  ])rovisions  of  the  law. 

260.  Its  Character  an^  Effectiveness.  This  i)roi)osal 
was  essentially  diirerent  from  earlier  colonizing  projects.  It 
was  clearly  socialistic.  Earlier  colonies  luid  been  s(Mit  out  to 
points  of  danger  to  hold  and  to  Romanize  new  ly  acquired  terri- 
tory. Tlie  protection  wliich  they  gave  th<'  stale  was  a  sufficient 
return  for  the  land  wliich  the  slate  gaAc  tliem.  The  colonists 
of  Tiberius  were  to  be  selth-d  in  peaceful  sections  of  Italv: 
lliev  wen'  to  receive  land  s<>lclv  because  of  their  poverty.  It 
is  clear  that  his  measures  could  not  have  removed  the  real  evil 
of  the  situation.  That  lay  in  the  fact  that  the  farmers  and 
free  farm  laborers  were  ruined,  as  we  have  already  <>vv\\,  bv 
the  low  price  al  which  imported  corn  was  s(»ld  and  bv  the  use 
of  slave  labor.     Til)eriu.s's  bill  did  in)t   touch  these  difficulties. 

261.  It  is  Finally  Adopted.  It  met  with  violent  opposi- 
tion from  the  ricli  wln>  were  in  possession  of  tln'  land  of  which 
the  state  [)r(jposed  to  resume  control,  and  they  j)revailed  upon 
Octavius,  one  ()f  the  tribunes,  to  interpose  his  veto.  This 
opposition  drove  Tiberius  to  adopt  an  extreme  course.  Declar- 
ing that  a  re{)resentative  of  the  peo])le  ceases  to  be  such  when 
he  acts  out  of  harmony  with  the  [jopular  wish,  he  summoned 
the  assembly  and  asked  it  to  vote  whetlier  or  not  Octavius 
should  be  deposed  from  olfice.  T\\v  people  voted  in  the  affirm- 
ative, and  Octavius  was  deprived  of  the  tribunate.  The 
action  which  Til)erius  took  in  this  case  was  even  more  revolu- 
tionary and-  ifK)re  at  variance  with  Roman  tratlition  than  his 
agrarian  measure  had  been.  It  was  subversive  of  stable 
government,  and  rested  upon  the  theory  tliat  the  permanent 
institutions  of  the  state  wen*  at  the  mercy  of  a  temj)orarv  poiuilar 


majority— a  theory  which  ultinuitely  took  practical  form  in  the 
democratic  empire  of  Julius  Caesar.  The  agrarian  law  of 
Tiberius  was  ado[)te»l  but  he  himself  was  killed  while  seek- 
ing reelection  to  tlie  tribunate. 

262.  Results  of  the  Movement    led   by  Tiberius.     His 
efforts,  liowever,  were  not  fruitless.     From  13o  to  124  B.  r.,  the 
numl>er  of  citizens  increased  from  three  hundred  and  eighteen 
thousand  to  three  hundred  a?!d  ninety- five  thousand,  and  a  large 
majority  of  those  whose  names  were  added  to  the  lists  must 
liave  gained  their  right  to  be  enrolled  as  citizens  by  becoming 
landowners  under  the  ne^^■  law.     A  less  desirable  outcome  of 
the    measure    j)rol)abIy    its    author    had    not    anticipated.     By 
its  oj)eration  the  ])rivileges  wliicli  the  Latins  and  other  Italians 
had  enjoyed  in  the  ])ublic  land  were  taken  from  them;  they 
were  made  to  feel  more  keenly  than  ever  the  drawbacks  under 
which  they  suffered  \\  hen  compared  with  Roman  citizens,  and 
were  soon  driven,  as  we  shall  see,  into  open  revolt  against  Rome, 
lint  t!ie  most  important   nsult  of  the  agitation  which  Tiberius 
started  was  the  development  of  a  democratic  opposition  to  the 
Nohi/ltas.     Economic  conditions  for  a  century  or  more  had  been 
j)iUting   wealth,   social   station,   and   political   influence   in   the 
liands  of  the  few  at  the  ex|)ense  of  the  many,  and  the  ill-defined 
hostility  wliich   tlu-  poor  felt  against  the  ricli  in  consequence 
of  this  state  of  affairs  resulted  in  the  struggle  for  agrarian  rights. 
In  this  struggle  the  senate  eham])ioned  the  cause  of  the  wealthy 
landholder.      This  was  only  n;itural,  because  the  senate  was 
made  u|)  of  ricli  men,  but  tlie  turn  which  affairs  thus  took  con- 
verted the  economic  into  a  political  struggle,  and  arrayed  the 
I>oor,  with  the  comitia  as  their  organ,  against  the  rich  nobles 
who  were  firmly  entrenched  in  the  senate. 

263.  The  Policy  of  Gains  Gracchus.  Gains  Gracchus, 
who  succeeded  his  brother  in  the  leadership  of  the  democracy, 
and  was  elected  to  the  tribunate  in  123,  saw  clearly  that  the 
senate  must  be  his  point  of  attack.  To  succeed  he  must  lessen 
its  power,  loAver  its  prestige,  and  take  from  it  its  political  and 
social  privileges      But  Gains  was  not  an  idealist,  as  his  brother 


140 


fvOMW    HISTORY 


THE    BEGINNING    OF  THE   KEVOLI'TION 


14? 


had  l>een.  He  wns  a  pniclicMl  politiciiui  of  j^'rcat  fonstnictive 
ability,  and  lie  know  that  to  siMurc  Iroiii  a  powerful,  compact 
bofly,  like  the  senate,  the  pohtical  and  ('(-(.noniie  rights  of  the 
people,  it  would  not  sufHee  to  rely  upon  the  justice  of  his  cause  he 
must  %ht  the  senate  with  its  own  v\'eaj)ons.  He  nnist  conihine, 
too,  all  the  elements  in  the  stale  whose  interests  were  opposed 
to  those  of  the  senate,  arnl,  to  win  the  support  of  ditferent 
classes  of  society,  lie  must  include  in  his  political  programme 
projects  which  would  ap|)eal  to  each  (»f  them.  T(»  this  task 
he  applied  himself.  The  two  classes  upon  whose  hacking  he 
counted  were  tln^  proletariat,  or  po()r  people,  and  the  knights. 

264.  How  He  Won  the  Support  of    the    Poor   People. 

To  win  tile  adhesion  of  the  loiTiier  he  secured  the  recMiactment 
or  reafllrmation  (jf  his  brother's  land  law;  he  pro\  ided  for 
tile  estabhshment  (tf  colonies  foi-  the  needy  in  s(»uthern'  Italy 
and  across  tln'  sea;  h<'  liuhtcned  tlie  hardships  of  military 
service,  and  he  ha<l  a  lex  Inititcntitria ,  or  corn  law,  passed, 
which  jMit  grain  at  the  disposal  of  the  po<ir  at  a  i)rice  lower 
than  the  market  rate. 

265.  How  He  Won  the  Knights.  To  sec  u re  the  support 
of  the  knights,  or  llie  rich  men  who  were  not  members  of  sena- 
torial families,  (rains  turned  over  tlie  control  of  the  courts  to 
tlieUi,  an<l  gave  them  a  m<»nopoly  in  collecting  the  taxes  in 
Asia.  From  this  tinu*  o!i  liny  tormed  a  recognizcMl  order  ot 
nobility,  ami  it  was  probably  he  who  first  indicated  their  aris- 
to(Tatic  standing  to  the  vyv  by  allowing  them  to  wear  gold 
finger  rino-s  and  tunics  with  a  narrow  bord<'r,  and  by  giving 
them  sejMi,ii<    scats  at  the  games. 

266.  His  Direct  Attacks  upon  the  Senate.  He  secured 
the  jiassage  of  a  law  [)r(*s(Tibing  the  manner  in  which  the  senate 
should  assign  provinces  to  the  consuls,  and  in  tliis  way  lessened 
the  senate's  cf>ntro]  of  the  chief  magistrate*.  He  also  sought 
to  give  imporlaiH  1-  to  the  comitia,  and  to  substitute  their  action 
for  the  decrees  of  the  senate.  In  one  important  matter  especially 
he  secured  a  restatement  of  the  principle  that  the  senate  was 
subordinate    to    the    po[)ular    assemblies.     After    the    death    of 


v\ 


Tiberius,  the  senate  established  a  judicial  commission  to  in- 
vestigate the  action  of  some  (jf  his  followers.  They  were  tried 
and  executed.  To  |)rotect  himself  and  future  democratic 
leaders  from  such  a  fate,  (laius  secured  the  passage  of  a  new 
law  reallirmlng  a  citize.i's  right  to  ap[)eal  to  the  people  from 
a  capital  sentence. 

267.  The  Political  Ability  and  Ideals  of  Gaius.  To 
weld  togetluT  into  one  political  |)arty  two  classes  whose  interests 
and  sym})athies  were  so  opposed  to  each  other  as  were  those 
of  tlie  Roman  populace  and  the  knights  was  a  problem  recjuir- 
ing  a  clear  insight  into  political  and  social  conditions,  extra- 
ordinary tact,  and  remarkable  executive  ability.  That  Gaius 
conceived  the  plan  and  carried  it  out  successfully  shows  how 
able  a  politician  he  was.  The  democratic  party  was  inspired 
bv  'I'iberius,  but  was  made  an  accomplished  fact  by  Gains. 
The  movement  to  which  he  gave  meaning  and  direction  })rought 
about  in  the  cFid  a  complete  chiuge  in  the  form  of  government. 
The  system  toward  which  lie  seemed  to  aim  was  a  democracy^ 
ex]>ressing  its  will  through  the  comitia,  and  carrying  out  its 
pur|K)se  through  the  tribimate.  In  such  a  I'orm  of  government 
there  was  no  i)lace  lel't  for  the  senate  and  the  nol>les,  and  it  is 
clear  that  the  success  ol"  his  cause  meant  a  political  revolution. 
The  next  century  saw  the  natural  develoj)ment  of  his  j)olicy 
in  the  (lecline  of  the  senate's  |)ower  and  the  establishment  of 
the  democratic  empire  of  Julius  Caesar.  This  is  not  to  say 
that  Gains  aimed  at  a  tyranny  for  himself  or  for  his  successors 
in  the  tribunate,  but  the  circumstances,  the  forces  wliich  he 
set  in  motion  could  lead  oidy  to  the  humbhng  of  the  senate 
and  the  ascendency  of  one  man. 

268.  His  Motives.  The  motives  of  Gaius  were  mixed. 
He  sought  to  build  up  a  democratic  l)arty,  to  reduce  the  senate 
to  its  constitutional  position,  to  relieve  the  distress  of  the  com- 
mon peo}/le,  and  to  ave?ige  his  brotlier.  Some  of  his  measures, 
therefore,  like  his  land  laws,  his  law  of  ap[)eal,  and  his  coloniz- 
ing projects,  were  intended  io  promote  the  best  interests  (^-f  the 
people;  other  reforms,  like  the  reorganization  of  the  juries  and 


^ 


ROMW    TTlSToflV 


THE    BEGIXXIXG   OF   THE  REVOLUTION 


149 


the  clinn^c  iikhIc  in  tlit'  nictluHl  <»!'  sclccliiij;  provincial  j^jovernors, 
(laius  perhaps  tiumj^ht  would  In-  sjihilan,  but  thev  wciv  pro- 
posed mainly  for  |)oliti(al  reasons,  while  still  other  hillsj  like  the 
corn  hiw,  were  either  sincere,  hut  unwise,  attempts  to  relie\'e 
the  poor,  or  wen'  insf)ire<l  solely  l)y  political  motives,  and  were 
wholly  perniciou.  . 

269.  Effects  of  the  Corn  Law.  TIiIn  last  measure,  the 
corn  law,  acc<>mj)lislied  its  main  pur[)Ose  of  detaehinjf  cHents 
fnmi  the  patrons  upon  whom  they  had  relied  for  lar<^esses  in 
the  I)ast,  and  of  atlachin;,^  them  to  the  democratic  party,  hut 
its  ultimate  etfects  were  disastrous.  By  providing  for  the  sail- 
of  ^rain  at  prices  lower  than  it  eould  be  grown  m  Italy,  tlie 
law  neutralized  the  efforts  which  were  making  to  build  uj)  tlie 
farming  industry;  bv  giving  the  idle  a  chance  to  get  food  at 
unnaturally  low  piico  it  kept  them  in  the  city,  attracted  horde> 
of  needy  Italians  to  Rome,  and  so  more  than  olfset  the  attempt 
which  was  liciiiii:  niade  lo  «lraw  the  unemploved  into  the  countrv 
by  the  establislunent  of  colonies.  \Vor>t  (if  all,  it  accustomed 
the  great  mass  of  the  Fioman  peoj)le  to  depend  u|)on  the  state 
rather  than  on  their  own  eiforts  for  a  liveliliood. 

270.  The  Downfall  and  Death  of  Gains  Gracchus  in 
121  B.  C.  It  was  this  debased  populace  which  deserted  Gains 
when  he  prop(*sed  the  xcond  part  of  his  great  scheUK'  of  reform 
— the  bestowal  of  Homan  citizenship  ujion  the  Latins,  and 
Latin  riglit.^  upon  the  other  Italian  allies.  Selfishly  unwilling 
to  share  their  privileges  witli  others,  tlie  j)eople  failed  to 
elect  liim  to  tlie  triburuite  for  the  third  tim«^;  an  attack  was 
made  upon  his  laws;  an  arme<l  conflict  followed;  Gains  was 
killed,  ami  three  thousand  of  his  followers  were  condenmed 
to  death  l)y  a  judicial  commission — the  ver\-  weapon  which, 
by  his  law  of  appeal,  he  liad  tried  to  strike  from  the  hands  of 
the  senate. 

271.  Jugurtha  and  the  African  ScandaL  The  senate 
had  trinmj.lied  again,  but  it  failed  to  h<-ed  tlie  warning  which 
the  movements  led  by  Tiberius  and  Gains  Gracchus  should 
have  given  it.     It  adhered  to  it>  selfish  i)olicy  of  governing  in 


•^v 


the  interests  of  the  nohiUtas.  Its  venalitv,  selfisliuess,  and 
inca[)aeity  were  painfully  ajiparent  during  the  war  with  Jugur- 
tha, and  lost  it  the  prestige  which  its  victory  over  the  Gracchi 
liad  won.  Jugurtha,  an  African  prince,  had  inherited  the 
kingdom  of  Numidia  conjointly  with  tw^o  of  his  cousins  in 
118  B.  C.  He  soon  found  means,  how^ever,  of  murdering  both 
his  rivals  and  of  making  himself  master  of  all  Numidia.  One 
of  the  claimants  to  the  throne,  before  his  death,  appealed  to 
Rome  for  helj),  and  the  scandal  wliich  followed  scarcely  finds 
a  parallel  in  Roman  history.  Two  commissions,  headed  by 
distinguished  members  of  the  aristocracv,  were  sent  to  Africa, 
but  Jugurtha  had  a  long  purse,  the  Roman  envoys  were  amen- 
able to  reason,  and  the  commissions  returned  to  Rome,  leaving 
a  free  hand  to  the  African  king.  But  the  massacres  which 
followed  the  return  of  tlie  second  (Mubassy  forced  the  senate 
to  <leclare  war,  and  the  consul  L.  Calpurnius  Bestia  was  de- 
spatched to  Africa  with  an  army.  To  the  surprise  even  of 
the  senate,  Bestia  made  a  disgraceful  treaty  with  Jugurtha, 
and  left  him  in  undisj)ute(l  control  in  Africa. 

272.  The  War  with  Jugurtha,  112-105  B.  C.  Ulti- 
mately the  senate  was  forced  to  declare  war  upon  him,  but  it 
proved  to  be  as  incapal)le  in  carrying  on  military  operations 
against  him,  ;is  it  had  been  venal  in  conducting  negotiations 
with  him.  The  seri(\s  of  disgraceful  negotiations  and  disastrous 
defeats  winch  had  extended  through  eleven  years  gave  the 
popular  j)arty  its  opportunity,  and  the  democrats  and  middle 
classes  uniting  upon  Gains  Marius,  w^ho  had  served  with  dis- 
tinction in  a  subordinate  capacity  in  Africa  in  the  year  107, 
F'icured  his  ele<tion  to  the  consulship  l)y  a  large  majority,  and 
entrustcid  to  him  the  conduct  of  the  campaign  against  Jugurtha. 
In  two  years'  time  Marius  brought  the  king  of  Numidia  in 
chains  to  Rome. 

273.  Marius  and  Sulla  Become  Known.  This  war  Is 
interesting  in  that  it  brought  to  the  front  two  men,  Marius 
and  Sulla,  one*  belonging  to  the  commons,  the  other  to  the 
aristocracy,    whose    persiuial    rivalry    and    political    animosity 


150 


liOMW    mSTOHY 


THE   BKGINNINC   OF  THE   REVOLUTION 


151 


f)lun<,^('(l  Rome  into  a  ficK  .■  civil  .stru<,'<;Ic',  and  drew  more  ri«^idly 

•  liitii  ever  llu'  liiic  In'twc-cn  tlie  senate  and  the  demoeraev.     The 

part  which  Marius  phiyed  in  tlie  eanipai^^ni  we  have  just  noticed. 

Ills  future  rival,  Siillii,  won  a  name  for  himself  in  the  war  hv  ^^ 

ijis    brilliant   leadership  of  a  cavalry  foree.     In  fact  no  small 

share  of  tlie  sue<xss  of  the  campaign  was  due  to  his  skill  and 

darin*^. 

274.  Their  Character.    The  two  men  were  as  far  removed  . 

as  possible  from  each  other  in  antecedents,  character,  and  meth-  \ 

(hU.      Marius  was  the   :>(>n   of    a    lal.orer;    Sulla   was    a.    mem-  > 

ber  of  a  noble  family.      Marius  pass«'d  his  youth   in   the  villa<>:e  j 

<»f    Ari)iiuun.     On    the    drudirery   ..f    farm    labor   followed   the 
liardships  of  a  j)riva(e  soldier's  hlV.     His  world  was  the  camp.  i 

Of    |)olilics,    sociely,  e.r    ihe    refinenienl>    of    life    he    had    no  ^ 

knouled<»:e.  Serious-miudcd  lo  iJic  point  of  bein^  obstinate,  or 
even  stolid,  he  fnuoht  his  way  Upward  with  a  i^nim  determina- 
tion over  all  ihe  obstacles  which  ihc  jealnu^  ami  conlempiuous 
nol)ility  alwMvs  threw  in  the  way  of  a  "new  man."  Sulla,  on 
llie  otlier  hand,  belon<,^ed  to  a  noM(  familv.  lie  was  brouirht 
up  at  Konie,  and  f»lutiii<Ml  with  abandon  into  every  form  of 
pleasure  which  the  society  of  the  metropolis  ollVred.  Familiar 
with  the  refinemctits  of  lifr.  of  an  eni(»tional  temperament, 
and  yet  touched  with  tlie  cvnicism  of  a  mar.  of  the  world,  he 
ruled  men  because  of  his  inborn  <^^enius  to  rule  and  not  because, 
as  with  Marius,  \-r:\r<.  of  hardship  had  tau^du  him  tlie  importance 
of  discipline,  and  how  !<,  enforce  it  onotliers.  To  him  the  path 
of  prefcnuent  was  easv,  for  he  was  the  chosen  champion  of 
the  -scHiite. 

275.  Marius  Allies  Himself  with    the    Democracy    in 

100  B.  C.  The  demociats  were  nuick  to  take  advantage  of 
the  brilliant  >uceess  which  their  champion  won  in  Africa,  and 
later  over  tlie  ( ^imbri,  and  formed  a  [lolitical  alliance  with  him. 
In  accordance  with  its  terms  they  elected  him  to  the  consul- 
ship for  the  sixth  time  in  100  B.  c,  assigned  lands  to  liis  vet- 
erans, and,  by  tlie^e  e(,t]cessl(»ns,  secured  his  sup|)ort  of  the  ■ 
a|?rarian    measures   of   their    tribune.       Hut   the   violent  means            | 


which  the  democratic  leaders  used  to  secure  tlie  passage  of 
their  land  l>ills  obliged  Marius,  as  consul,  to  take  active  measures 
to  restore  order.  By  this  action  he  disappointed  the  democrats, 
and  was  forced  into  retirement  at  the  end  of  his  year  of  office. 

276.  M.  Livius  Drusus  Proposes  to  Give  the  Italians 
Roman  Citizenship.  The  measure  w  Inch  had  led  to  the  de- 
feat of  Gains  Gracchus  was  his  proposition  to  grant  citizenship 
to  the  Italians.  The  agent  whom  the  senate  had  used  in  encom- 
passing his  downfall  was  a  tribune  named  Livius  Drusus.  It 
is  a  strange  illustration  of  the  irony  of  fate  that  the  son  of  this 
man,  holding  tlie  same  office  of  tribune,  should  have  revived 
the  agitation  in  favor  of  the  Italians,  and  sliould  thereby  have 
lost  his  life.  The  political  aim  of  the  younger  Drusus  differed 
essentially,  however,  from  that  of  Gains  (Jraeehus.  The  trilnine 
of  123  had  tried  to  overthrow  the  senate  by  comljining  all  the 
other  forces  in  tlie  state  against  it.  Drusus,  on  the  other  hand, 
sought  to  strengthen  the  conservative  position  by  removing 
the  i)rincipal  causes  of  «liscontent,  not  only  in  Rome  but  in  all 
Italy.  But  the  same  selfish  unwillingness  to  share  their  })rivi- 
leges  with  others,  which  the  Uomans  had  shown  before,  and 
which    had    thwarted    his    j)red*  .r,  brought    the   efforts   of 

Drusus  also  to  naught,  and  he  became  a  victim  of  popular 
pjission,  as  Gains  Gracclius  had  been. 

277.  The  Defeat  of  his  Bill  Leads  to  War.  The  bill 
which  Drusus  submitted  in  the  year  91  was  the  last  of  manv 
attem[)ts  to  better  tlie  condition  of  the  Italians  by  constitutional 
metkods.  When,  like  its  |)re(leccssors,  it  resulted  in  failure 
and  was  followed  l)y  severe  re|)ressive  measures  directed  ajrainst 
them,  the  discontent  of  the  Italians  broke  out  into  an  open 
revoh,  in  which  all  excei)t  the  Latins  and  the  aristocratic  states 
of  Umbria  and  Etruria  joined. 

278.  The  Grounds  of  Italian  Discontent.  The  grievances 
of  the  Italians  were  partly  economic  and  partly  political.  The 
well-to-do  citizens  of  one  state  were  galled  by  the  restriction 
which  prevented  them  from  trading  directly  with  citizens  of 
another  state,  and  which  gave  Roman  citizens  a  monot)oly  of 


152 


ROMAN     lUSToUY 


THE  BEGINNING    OF  THE    REVOLUTION 


153 


this  lucrative  Imsincss.  llicy  wwr  \n(Vvn\n\\\  at  Ikmiij^  oblii^ofl 
to  meet  a  lar^^e  part  ol"  the  <\[»eii.M-  oi  njifi^i'ii  v^ars,  while  they 
had  little  sliare  in  the  (lisLj*ihiiti<jn  of  land  or  l)ooty.  The 
jjoorer  Italians  envied  the  liotJian  populace  its  privile<^e  of 
getting  free  j^n-ain  and  of  sellini^"  its  vote>  at  a  remunerative 
figure.  Politieally  the  a.mhitious  Italian  was  also  at  a  ^n'eat 
disadvanta^^',  because  hi-  w  a>  not  elii::il)le  to  any  of  the  ini[>ortanl 
eivil  or  military  positions.  As  tln'  emj)ire  increased  in  size 
and  wealth,  tlie  importance  of  the  ^'overnin-^  city  of  Rome 
grew,  and  made  the  value  of  Roman  citizenship  greater  and 
more  ap|)annit.  ronscipiently,  when  the  Romans  refused  to 
give  tliem  Roman  citizenship  freely,  the  Italians  demanded 
it  as  a  right,  and,  failing  to  gain  their  demand,  they  set  up  a!i 
irule|»endent  government  with  it>  capital  at  Corlinium. 

279.  The  Italians  Win  Citizenship  in  the  Social  War, 
90-88  B.  C.  The  advantage  in  the  early  part  of  the  v.ar 
rested  with  the  Italians,  and  nithin  a  year  and  a  half  (•!  it>  out- 
lireak  Rome  was  forced  In  :'i;ml  tlu-  right  of  ac«jiii|-iug  Roman 
citizenship  to  the  cilizcii^  of  alli«-tl  stale-  who  shonld  register 
their  names  with  a  lloiii.iii  praelor  williin  sixty  i\nys.  This 
eonressioii  satisfied  a  majority  of  the  Italians,  and  heforc  the 
elo^v;  of  the  vear  SS  the  disadecled,  who  still  held  out  amom'' 
the  Bruttii,  in  Sanuiium,  and  in  Lncania,  were  forced  to  submit 
by  Sulla. 

280.  But  it  had  Little  Political  Value  for  Them.  The 
extension  of  Roman  citizenship  to  the  Italians  brought  abont 
a  eomjjletc  transformation  in  tlie  relation  of  the  Italian  cities 
to  one  another.  They  were  no  longer  comnumities  visted 
with  the  right  of  self-government  in  varying  measure,  carefully 
isolated  from  one  another,  and  acting  under  the  leadership 
of  Rome,  but  they  were  on  a  plane  of  |>olilical  erpialitv  with 
one  another  and  witli  Rome,  and  their  citizens  were  Roman  citi- 
zens. But  in  practice  tliis  did  not  mean  that  the  peo])le  of 
the  small  towns  throughout  Italy  exercised  all  the  political 
rights  of  Roman  citizens.  Jnst  so  long  a.  lliev  w(Te  oblio-ofj 
to  go  to  Rome  to  vote  that  was  impossible.      Had  the  Romans, 


I 


T' 
f 


when  they  granted  eitizenshij)  to  the  Italians,  adopted  the 
method  of  electing  magistrates  which  we  follow^  to-day,  and 
provided  that  elections  should  be  held  in  all  the  Italian  towns 
simultaneously  with  the  elections  in  Rome,  and  that  the  candi- 
dates receiving  the  majority  of  all  the  votes  thus  cast  should  be 
declared  consuls,  or  praetors,  or  tribunes;  or  if  they  had  even 
admitted  representatives  of  Italian  cities  to  the  seiuite,  tlien 
the  Italians  would  have  actually  enjoyed  the  political  rights 
of  Roman  citizens.  But  the  old  plan  was  adliered  to,  of  keep- 
ing the  senate  a  close  corporation,  and  of  holding  the  comitia 
in  Rome  only.  Now  only  those  living  near  Rome  could  come 
to  the  city  to  vote,  and  consetiucntly  nuigistratcs  were  still 
elected,  and  laws  were  still  enacted,  as  they  had  been  in  the 
past,  by  the  populace  of  Rome.  Rome  was  still  a  city-stJite, 
and  die  e(pialization  of  political  privileges  throughout  Italy 
wliich  the  Social  War  brought  about  was  one  in  form  rather 
than  in  reality. 

281.  The  War  Brings  Monarchy  Nearer.  Had  some 
adecjuate  system  of  representation  for  Italy  been  adopted,  it 
is  conceivable  that  the  republic  might  have  been  given  a  new 
lease  of  life  thereby.  But  under  the  new  settlement  all  the 
wi'jiknesses  and  evils  of  the  old  system  persisted,  and  the  drift 
toward  autocracy  was  tlie  more  rapid,  for  it  was  intolerable 
that  Italy  and  the  world  should  be  ruled  either  by  a  selhsh 
Roman  aristocracy  or  an  ignorant,  fickle  city  mob.  A  ques- 
tion of  internal  politics,  which  it  seemed  impossible  to  settle 
by  peaceful  means,  had  been  setded  by  the  arbitrament  of 
arms.  Why  might  not  other  domestic  questions  be  disposed 
of  in  the  same  way?  The  war  had  raised  up  a  great  leader 
in  Sulla,  supi)orted  by  a  well-trained  and  devoted  army  and 
enthusiastically  welcomed  as  the  champion  of  the  conservative 
cause.  Over  against  him  stood  Marius,  late  ally  of  the  demo- 
crats, whose  veterans,  already  impatient  of  a  farmer's  hum- 
drum life,  were  waiting  for  his  call  to  arms.  Neither  of  these 
men  succeeded  in  substituting  the  will  of  one  man  for  that  of 
the  many,  but  they  prepared   the  way  for  a  successor,  Caesar, 


154 


HUMAN    IIISTOKY 


THr:  BPXJINNIXO    OF  THE   REVOLUTION 


155 


who  had  the*  tlt'ariK'ss  of  vision  li»  stc  liic  ircmi  of  athiirs,  and 
the  darinj;  and  ability  to  take  .ulvantajj^c'  of  it. 

282.  Struggle  of  Marius  and  Sulla  for  the  Command 
in  the  East  in  88  B.  C.  Rt'lieved  from  tlie  strain  of  the 
Social  War,  the  Romans  turned  their  attention  to  tiie  intri<^ues 
of  Mithridates  in  the  ( )rient,  and  j)iit  Sulla  in  command  of 
an  army  destined  to  carry  on  the  war  aganist  him.  But 
Marius  coveted  the  appointment,  and  to  attain  his  object 
made  an  alhance  with  the  democratic  leader  Sulpicius  as  he 
had  years  l)efore  with  the  democratic  lril)une.  The  reform 
measures  of  Suli)icius  and  the  bill  transferring  from  Sulla  to 
Marius  the  command  of  the  armv  destined  for  the  East  were 
pushed  through  the  eomitia  by  the  use  of  foirc.  Sulla  was 
with  his  army  in  ('am})ania.  lie  laid  Ijefore  the  soldiers  the 
news  from  Koine.  Fearful  of  losing  their  share  of  the  Eastern 
spoils,  and  indignant  at  the  treatment  which  their  connnander 
had  receive<l,  they  urged  him  to  lead  them  to  the  city.  Sulla, 
nothing  loath,  set  out  for  Home  with  six  legions.  On  tlie  way 
envoys  met  him  and  asked  him  why  he  was  marehing  with 
armed  forces  against  the  city.  "To  deliver  her  from  her 
tyrants,"  he  replied — the  same  flefciisc  u  hieli  Caesar  offered 
forty  years  later,  when  lir  advanced  against  Rome.  The 
democratic  leaders  called  the  mol)  together,  promised  the 
slaves  tlieir  freedom,  and  attacked  the  troojjs  of  Sulla  from 
the  roofs  of  liouses  and  temple;,  but  the  struggle  was  short 
and  decisive.  Sulla  was  victor,  the  new  laws  were  rei)eale  1, 
and  Marius  and  Sulpicius  were  lianished.  The  meaning  of 
the  incident  is  clear.  It  was  an  arm(<l  struggle  between  two 
leaders  for  j)ersonal  su|>rem:!c\-  -nwl  <\\('Ci^<<  lay  with  the  licavicr 
battalions.  I  hit  Sulla's  trou|;.-.  wuiu  «ja-ii  lur  the  Eastern  cam- 
paign, and  he  left  the  city  without  firmly  estiiblisliing  his  own 
party  in  power. 

283.  Marius  and  Cinna,  Masters  of  Rome  87-84  B.  C. 
Cn.  Octavius,  one  of  the  two  consuls  for  the  next  year,  87  B.  c. 
was  an  aristocrat,  but  his  colleague,  E.  <  ornelius  (  imia,  belonged 
to  the  o[)positc  party.     Marius's  opportunity  liad  c(jme.     Call- 


1 


) 


ing  out  his  veterans,  he  suj)porled  the  cause  of  Cinna,  drove 
Oitavius  from  the  city,  established  the  authority  of  the  demo- 
cratic party,  and  realized  his  dream  of  holding  the  consulship 
for  the  seventh  time  He  died  in  ofhce,  having  apparently  tri- 
\nri|)hed  over  his  enemy. 

284.  The  Return  of  Sulla  in  83  B.  C.  But  the  success 
of  the  democrats  was  short-lived.  We  have  already  followed 
Sulla's  campaign  in  the  East,  and  know  that  within  three  years 
lie  concluded  a  hasty  peace  with  Mithridates.  Eariy  in  83  lie 
landed  in  Italv  and  advanced  toward  Rome.  The  untrained 
forces  of  tlie  democrats  under  incompetent  leaders  could 
not  withstand  the  assaults  of  his  veteran  troops.  Sertorius 
alone  of  the  Marian  Iciulers  (^scaped  with  a  few  troops  to  set 
uf)  later  in  Spain  th(^  standard  of  the  Marian  cause.  After 
crushing  out  a  des|)erate  uprising  of  the  Samnites,  who  saw 
in  the  civil  war  a  cluuice  to  avengt?  the  wrongs  of  centuries, 
Sulla  entered  Ronie  as  Its  unquestioned  master. 

285.  Sulla  Crushes  all  Opposition.  With  grim  deter- 
mination he  set  himself  to  work  to  (\stablish  the  conservative 
party,  or  the  oligarchy,  firmly  in  |)ower  again.  This  involved 
in  his  mind  two  things:  the  extermination  of  the  democracy, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  seruite  to  its  old  position  of  author- 
ity. The  first  part  of  his  plan  was  carried  through  with  that 
cynical  contemi)t  for  human  life  and  liberty  which  was  char- 
acteristic of  him.  'V\\v  horrors  of  the  proscription  which  fol- 
lowed Sulla's  return  to  Rome  never  faded  from  the  memory 
of  the  Romans.  The  nuu'der  of  his  enemies  and  the  confis- 
cation of  their  j)roperty,  though  carried  out  without  regard  to 
law  or  evidence,  was  reduced  to  a  careful  system.  The 
names  of  the  proscribed  were  posted  in  lists;  rewards  were 
publicly  offered  for  their  murder  and  the  partisans  of  Sulla 
cut  down  their  victims  wherever  they  could  be  found.  Four 
thousand  and  seven  hundred  Romans,  including  forty  sen- 
ators and  sixteen  hundred  knights,  lost  their  lives  m  this 
w\iy.  The  wrath  of  Sulla  also  fell  heavily  upon  the  peoples 
and  towns  in  Italy  which  had  opposed  him,  and  to  hold  them 


156 


ROMAN    lilSTORY 


in  check  in  the  future,  he  founded  several  colonies  of  vetenms. 
He  did  id!  this,  not  so  uuieli  from  ;i  spirit  of  animosity  against 
his  personal  enemies,  as  with  the  desire  to  rid  the  country  of 
men  who  mij^ht  a^'ain  lead  a  revolution. 

286.  How   He   Entrenched    the  Senate  in  Power.    He 
had  already  received  the  dictatorship  for  an  indefinite  period, 
instead  of  takin^^  it  f(jr  the  traditional  six  months,  and,  vested 
with  the  unlimited  i)owers  of  this  office,  he  addressed  himself 
to  the  positive  side  of  his  work   and  showed  that  his  skill  as  a 
constructive  statesman   was  as  ij^reat  as  his  ability  in  the  field. 
To  increase  the  i)ower  of  the  senate  as  a  law-makin'^  body  he 
reverted  to   the   method  of  procedure  which  prevailed  before 
287,  by  reaifirmin|]j  the  principle  that  the  preliminary  approval 
of  the  senate  was  necessary  before  a  measure  could  be  sul)- 
mjtted  to  the  i>lel>eian  tribal  asseml)ly.     So  lon<]j  as  this  con- 
servative system  continued  in  force  the  tribune  was  prevented" 
from  proposiao:    ^my  measures  of  which    the    s(Miate    did    not 
a|)[)rove,   for  the  ronciJiant  plcbls,   now  held    in  check  by  the 
^<Miate,  was  the  body  in  which  the  tribune  secured  the  passa;^'e 
of    ucli  l)ills  as  he  favored.     Now  the  tribune  was  the  acknowl- 
idd\i,vi\    re{)resentative    of    the    d(!moeracv.     ('onsefiuentlv,     f)V 
()reventin'j:  him  from  proposinj^  any  bills  without  the  approval 
of  tile  ^e?i;ite.  Sulla  aimed  to  suj)press  anv  or<i;anized  movement 
of  tile  democracy.     The  number  of  praetors  was  increased  to 
ii\g\\i  and  of  (luaestors  to  twenty.     Rx-ma<]^istrates,    by    virtue 
of  havin*,^  hel<l  an  office,  j)assed  directly  into  the  senate.     The 
senate  was  tluis  filled  automaticallv;  the  censor  was  no  lon<''er 
called  u})on  to  draw  up  a  list  of  senators,  and  the  control  of 
that  official  over  the  senate  disappeared.     Senators  were  also 
sul)stituted  for  knii^dits  on  the  juries.     By  these  measures  he 
freed  the  senat(;  from  the  control  of  the  maojistratcs,  and  <rave 
it  almost   exclusive   legislative   and  judicial   |)owers.     \hi   felt 
tliat  the  tri!)une  was  the  mouth[)iece  of  radicalism  and  njform, 
and  to  kec])  able,  ambitious  men  out  of  the  tribunate  he  had 
a  bill  passed  which  made  the  tribune  ineligible  to  any  other 
office  in  tlie  state.     AH  of  these  ineiisures,  of  course,   had  a 


THE    BEGINNING    OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


157 


1 


\ 

I 


political  pur[)ose,  and  were  well  calculated  to  restore  the  old 
regime,  and  to  put  the  oligarchy  in  an  inn)regnable  i)osition, 
but  even  a  Sulla  could  not  hold  back  the  tide  setting  toward 
democracy.  The  changes  which  we  have  just  noticed  were 
in  force  but  a  short  time. 

287.  His  Administrative  and  Judicial  Reforms.  His 
permanent  achievements  were  the  reforms  which  he  made  in 
the  administrative  and  judicial  systems.  Hitherto  it  had  been 
customary  for  magistrates  to  command  the  armies  of  the  stat(> 
during  their  year  of  office.  From  this  time  on  they  were  rarely 
sent  to  a  foreign  post  until  their  term  of  office  had  expired: 
that  is,  an  official  was  really  chosen  for  two  years,  serving  one 
year  a^  a  magistrate  in  Rome,  and  the  following  year  as  gov- 
ernor in  a  province.  This  change  was  made  possible  by  in- 
creasing to  eight  the  number  of  praetors,  who,  in  the  year  follow- 
ing their  term  of  office  at  Rome,  could,  with  the  two  ex-consuls, 
take  charge  of  the  ten  provinces.  In  originality,  })ermanence, 
and  practical  value  Sulla's  reform  of  the  judicial  system  was 
perhaps  of  more  imf)ortance  still.  Hitherto  the  Romans  had 
had  only  two  standing  courts,  one  to  try  magistrates  charged 
with  accepting  bribes  or  with  similar  offenses  (the  quarstio  de 
/v/M'/u/w/i6'),iind  the  otlier  to  hear  cases  of  murder  or  attempted 
murder  (the  quaestio  de  sicariis  et  veneficis).  Men  charged 
with  other  crimes  were  tried  before  a  po})ular  assembly,  or 
else  a  special  judicial  commission  was  established  to  hear 
the  case,  or  some  other  irregular  method  of  procedure  was 
adopted.  In  the  procedure  before  the  comitia,  all  the  people 
meeting  in  the  assembly  heard  the  evidence  brought  against 
a  man  accused  of  an  offense,  and  voted  upon  his  guilt  or  in- 
nocence. The  method  was  cumbersome;  the  evidence  could 
not  be  pro[)erly  presented  before  so  large  a  body,  and  a  great 
assembly  is  likely  to  be  swayed  by  gusts  of  prejudice  or 
passion.  Sulla  remedied  this  defect  by  providing  a  number 
of  new^  courts,  each  with  s[)ecial  jurisdiction  over  certain  classes 
of  crimes.  One  of  the  new  courts  for  example,  heard  cases 
of    forgcrv,  another   cases  of  bribery.     Over  these  courts  the 


158 


UO.MAX     lllSTOliV 


praetors  |>rt'si<lc<l.  Thr  jurii as  in  Sulla's  luw  « mirls  wrrc  made 
U[)  of  small  bodies  of  picknl  men,  wIk.m'  (K  liln'ralioiis  were 
directed  l»y  a  [)rcsidin^^  jud«iX',  and  li(Mircfoilh  justice  was  dis- 
pensed in  a  speedier,  simpler,  and  surer  way  than  luul  been 
possible  before. 

288.  Sulla's  Death  in  78  B.C.     Sulla  s  work  was   finislied. 
In  71)  lie  resigned  the  dietatorsliip,  and  retire<l  to  his  villa  at 


FOUTI'lN   t'F    11(1     UOSTHA,    Ui:SI«>HI-!'    ItV    Id    I   I.nI.N 

Puteoli.  His  death  in  the  following  year  e\(  ited  alarm  amouj; 
his  follow er.>  and  joy  among  his  enemie>.  His  bo(ly  was 
lirought  to  Koine,  and  a.s  Appian  lells  us.  "was  borne  through 
the  streels  wilh  an  enormous  procession  following  il.  From 
fear  of  the  assembled  soldiery  all  the  pii«  -I-  and  j>riestesses 
escorted  the  remains,  each  in  proper  costume.  'Hie  entire 
senate  and  the  whole  body  of  magistrates  attendc<I  with  their 
insiirnia  of  ofHee.     A  multitude  of  the  Koman  knights  followed 


THE    BEGINNING    OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


l59 


with  their  peculiar  decorations,  and  in  their  turn,  all  the  legions 
that  had  fought  under  him.  .  .  .  Sonje  really  longed  for  Sulla, 
but  others  were  afraid  of  his  army  and  his  dead  body,  as  they 
had  be(Mi  of  himself  when  living.  .  .  .  The  corpse  was  show^n 
in  the  h)rum  on  the  rostra,  where  ])ublie  speeches  were  usually 
ina«le,  and  the  most  elocpienl  of  the  Romans  then  living  delivered 
the  funeral  oration,  as  Sulla's  son  Faustus  was  still  very  young. 
Then  strong  n«en  of  tlu>  senators  took  up  the  litter  and  carried 
it  to  the  ('ami)us  Alartius,  where  only  kings  were  buried,  and 
die  knights  and  the  army  passed  in  line  around  the  funeral 
pile.     Antl  this  was  the  last  of  Sulla." 

289.  The  Democratic  Opposition  Under  Lepidus.  Dis- 
content with  the  new  order  of  things  had  not  dared  to  raise 
its  head  during  the  lifetime  of  Sulla,  but  with  his  death  the 
opi)osition  began  to  make  itself  felt.  The  knights  i>rotested 
at  their  exclusion  from  the  juries;  the  masses  murmured  at 
the  loss  of  prestige  wliieh  their  representative,  the  tribune,  had 
suffered  and  at  the  curtailment  of  the  powers  of  the  poi)ular 
assembly;  the  towns  whose  pro[)erty  had  been  confiscated  for 
supporting  the  dt^nocratie  cause,  and  the  children  of  the  i)ro- 
seribed  clamored  for  the  restitution  of  their  rights  and  their 
]iroi»erty,  an<l-  the  moderates  looked  forward  with  misgiving 
to  the  unrestrained  and  selfish  exercise  of  authority  by  the 
senate.  These  classes  found  a  temporary  champion  in  M. 
Aemilius  Lepidus,  consul  of  tlieyear  78,  but  the  armed  ui)rising 
which  he  led  was  tpiickly  crushed  out  by  his  colleague,  Q. 
Lutatius  Catulus,  a  firm  supporter  of  the  Optimates,  or  con- 
servatives, with  the  help  of  Pompey. 

290.  Pompey  and  Crassus.  It  was  left  for  tw^o  of  Sulla's 
own  lieutenants  to  undo  his  work,  and  they  employed  in  tearing 
down  the  structure  which  he  had  reared  the  same  agency  which 
he  had  used  in  building  it  up,  that  is,  the  army.  One  of  them, 
Fom[)ey,  had  behind  him  an  army  fresh  from  its  victory  over 
Sertorius,  the  Marian  leader  in  Spain;  the  other,  Crassus, 
was  supported  l)y  th< >  troops  which  had  just  suppressed  the 
dangerous  uprising  in  Italy  of  the  slaves  un^er  Spartacus. 


158 


k(iMA\    iii>I'H;\ 


jn-aetors  [UT^iilcd.  '!1ir  juries  in  Milhi'-.  !u\\  r..iirls  \\(  it-  made 
llji  (.f  Miiall  iMxlir-  ill  |ii(kc*i  liH'li,  \\li<»M-  d<  lllnTalioIi-.  wwv 
(lirrctcd  hy  a  j»n-sidiii^^  jndifc,  ami  liciicrri.rlli  jii.^lict'  wa >  dis' 
jXiixd  ill  ;i  ^[Mrdicr,  sim])!!!',  and  smcr  \\:i\  than  lia«l  Ihh'Ij 
|)(i.ssilil('  hcloic. 

288.  Sulla's  Death  in  78  B.C.     Sulla.  v,<.rk  w...  finisli.-d. 
In  7'.>  lie  n-sigiifd  the  diftalor.Nliiis  and  rrlirt-d   I"  lii>  \iila  al 


I'Oit  I  K  i\    <  •!      Ill  I      U<' 


i:  V    HI' 


rillcoli.  [\'\>  dcalli  ill  the  lollow  iiiir  vr;ii-  t-xriud  alarm  ainonii' 
his  l"(ill(i\\cr>  and  joy  amoii;'"  IiIn  ciK'niics.  Ili^  Imdy  wa.s 
l)r<»n;j,lit  lo  luinic,  and  as  Appian  tells  lis  "waN  Ix.iiir  llinuij.!:li 
tia'  sti'ct'ls  willi  an  i-nonnous  jjrnrcvsion  follow  iii'.';  il.  ['"roiii 
I'cjir  of  tlie  ;i  ^^<  nil>lr<l  soldierx  all  tin  pricsl^  aiHl  |»ri('sl<'s>cs 
i-^corteil  [\\r  uniaiiis,  cath  in  projM  r  coslmm  .  Tlic  ciilirc 
.senate  and  (lie  whole  Imdy  of  nia^'I^lrates  atleiided  willi  their 
iasiLniia  of  otiiee.     A  niiillitii<le  of  the  noinan  kiii;fhts  followed 


TIIK    HKCIWINd    ()!■     IllK    KFAOLUTION 


159 


^ 


V 


•  w 


i 


: 


*o 


with  their  i)eeiiliar  decoratioi.s,  an(]  in  tlieir  turn,  all  tli(^  lepons 
that  had  lV)ii*:ht  under  him.  .  .  .  Some  really  longed  for  Sulla, 
hut  others  were  afraid  of  his  army  and  his  dead  Inxly,  as  they 
had  heeii  of  himself  when  livini^;.  .  .  .  The  et)ri)se  was  shown 
in  the  forum  on  the  rostra,  where  puhlie  sj)eeehes  were  usually 
iiiiidr.  aial  the  most  elocpien!  of  the  Romans  tlien  livlno;  delivered 
the  funeral  oration,  as  Sulla's  son  Faustus  was  still  very  younfi;. 
Then  stromr  in«'ii  of  the  s^'iiators  took  up  the  litter  and  carried 
it  to  the  Campus  Martins,  where  only  kinj^s  were  huried.  and 
die  knitrhts  and  the  armv  passed  in  line  around  the  funeral 
pile.      And  this  was  the  last  of  Sulla. 

289.  The  Democratic   Opposition   Under  Lepidus.    Dis- 

eonlent  with  the  new  order  of  lhin}.^s  had  not  dared  to  raise 
its  h'-ad  durinir  the  lifetime  of  Sulla,  hut  with  his  death  the 
(.{•position  he<!:an  to  maki  itself  fell.  The  kniulits  i»rotested 
al  tlieir  exelusioii  from  the  juries;  the  masses  murmured  at 
the  loss  «.f  ]H-estio:e  which  their  represiutative,  the  trihune,  had 
sulfered  and  at  the  cniiailnient  of  the  powers  of  the  jiopnlar 
asseinhlv;  the  towns  who^.-  property  had  heen  confiscated  lor 
suppoiting  the  .lemocratic  cause,  and  the  children  of  the  pro- 
scrihed  elain<»red  for  the  nsfitution  of  their  riohts  and  their 
j.n.perfv,  and  the  moderates  looked  forward  with  niis*(ivino^ 
to  the  unresi rained  and  selfish  (^xercis(>  of  authority  hy  the 
senate.  These  classes  found  a  temi.orary  champion  in  M. 
.\emilius  Lepidus,  consul  of  the  year  7S,  hut  the  armed  ui)risino; 
which  he  led  was  (jiiickly  crushed  out  hy  his  eolleai^nie,  (^. 
Liitalius  Catulus,  a  firm  supporter  of  the  ()i)liiiiates,  or  con- 
servative's, with  the  help  of  Poinjiey. 

290.  Pompey  and  Crassus.  It  was  left  for  two  of  Sulla's 
own  lieutenants  to  undo  his  work,  an<l  they  employed  in  tearing 
down  thr  structure  which  he  had  reared  the  same  agency  which 
he  had  used  in  huilding  it  up,  that  is,  the  army.  One  of  them, 
Pompey,  had  hehind  liim  an  army  fresh  from  its  victory  over 
Sertorius,  the  ]\Iarian  leader  in  Spain;  the  other,  (^rassus, 
was  sup])(.rte<l  hy  the  troops  which  had  just  .suppressed  the 
danirerous  ii|>risini:'  in  Italv  of  the  slaves  un(l,er  Spartacus. 


Kid 


IfoMW    lllsT(»l;V 


291.  The  Consulship   of  Pompey  and    Crassus    in    70 

B.  C.     At    the  close  of  [\iv  yvHV  71    \\iv>v   two   men   apiH'arcd 
hfforc  tlic  city  to  claim  certain  political  lioiK.rs,  ami  the  iiioinciit 
for  iiiakino-  an  attack  on   the  constilntion  of  Snlla   seemed   to 
liav<'  c<»nie.      Pciinpey  wanted   laiid>   foi-  liis  veterans,  which  the 
senate  uonld  he  ioalit   to  ;iivc  him.      (  rassns,  the   rich   money- 
lender.  e()\<ted   |>ow;'r,    and   [)erlia|»s   wislied   for   milder  treat- 
ment  of  the  tax<ratlierer>  in  tlie  East.      The  kni<ihts,  the  demo- 
crats, andall  the  discontented  were  ready  to  sn|)|)ort  their  claims, 
[irovided   <(»ncession>    \\.re   made    to   themsehcs.     Two    victor- 
i«»ns    armies    ;it    the  ^'ates   of   tile   cit\'    fnrnished    an    arirument 
which   the  senate  could   not   resist,   an«l    Pompey   and   Crassus 
were    elected    eonsnls    for    the   year    70.     They    l.iyally    earrie<l 
out  the  harirain  whieh  they  had  made  with  the  .leinocrats  and 
kni^dits,  hy  remi)\inir  the  n-strictions   place»l  on   the  trihunate 
and    hy   seenrini,^   the   |>assa;:c   of   .i    law    whi<h    stlj)nlal((l    that 
the  jnries  should  henceforth  I.e  eomposcjl  «.f  senators,  kni«dits, 
and  reprcseiit.-itives  of  the  commons  known  as  irihuni  <t>  nirii. 
Wy  the  pass;ii:<'  of  these  two  hills  the  repeal  of  Sulla's  political 
le;risl.-ition  was  c<j?ii|>lete,  and  the  senate  lost  the  strcnii'th  which 
his  measures  had  ;riven  if.     (  )nl\    the  non-political  ju.|icial  an«l 
administrative    chanj^cs    .(.I'tinucd    in    h)rce.     Eater    the    con- 
servativts   were  still   further  humiliated   hv   s.-ein»r   INinuuv    iu 
spite  of  their  \i<:oroUs  opposition.  v«"sted  with  the  cxlraordinarv 
IK.wvrs   wliieh    the   (iahinian   and    Manilian    laws,   as    we   ha\e 
already  ru»tieed,  i:;iv(    him  for  the  cainpai-^nis  a^'ainst  the  pirates 
.nul  airaiiist  Mithridates. 

292.  The    Political    Sympathies  of    M.  TuUius  Cicero. 

These  tw..  canijKiiirMs  of  course  took  I'oni|»ey  aw.iy  from  K(.me 
:Iih!  remove.1  him  from  all  direct  participatii.n  in  politics  up 
to  the  close  e»f  the  ye;ir.T,2.  Ft  is  witliiu  this  perio<l  that  tlie 
Catilinarian  eiMispimey  falls,  .nul  it  was  this  conspiracy  which 
hniutrlit  into  promineice  tlie  lloman  orator,  Marcus  Tullius 
Cicero.  Cic^'o  was  horn  at  Arpinum  in  Hm;.  IU  descent 
he  was  a  kniirhf  and  a  "new  man,"  or  //o/v/.v  //0///0,  since  none 
of  his  ancest.irs   had    iield   a   ciirule   otlit v.      By   profession   he 


THE    BFXIIWINC    OF    THE    IH-VOU'TIOX 


1()1 


was  an  advocate.  Tli(>  influence  which  these  facts  had  upon 
liun,  stren}j:theik'd  hy  his  naturally  cautious  temperament, 
made  him  a   moderate  in  j)olitics,  and  a  strong  suj.pM)rter  of 


crri:no 


ilie  constitution  and  of  constitutional  methods.     The  reaction- 
ary pro<»Tamme  of  Sulla  was  as  little  to  his  tastt-  as  the  rcvoln 
tionary  methods  of  the  democrats.     In  fact,  lie  entered  puhlic 


Itid 


l;<.\!\\    iii-;rnl;V 


291.  The  Consulship   of   Pompey  and    Crassus    in    70 

B.  C.  At  till-  ('l(»>c  nf  tlK>  year  71  llicsr  two  men  apiu-arcd 
iH'lorr  the  city  to  claim  certain  political  lionois,  and  the  iiioincnt 
for  niakino-  an  attack  on  the  constitution  of  Snlla  seemed  to 
liave  come.  Pompey  wanted  lands  for  his  veliians,  which  tin- 
senate  wonld  he  loath  to  ^ive  him.  ("ra.ssus,  the  rich  money- 
lender, covete(l  jiower,  an<l  i»erhai)s  wishe<l  for  milder  treal- 
inent  of  the  ta.\<ratherers  in  the  East.  The  kni^ihts,  the  demo- 
crats, and  all  the  discontente<l  were  ready  to  snpport  their  claims, 
j)rovidcd  concessions  were  made  to  themsel\-es.  Two  victor- 
ions  armies  at  the  *:ates  of  tlie  city  fnrnishcd  an  arirument 
which  the  senate  conld  not  resist,  and  Pompey  and  Crassns 
were  cle(ie.l  consnis  for  the  year  70.  They  loyally  carrie(| 
out  the  harirain  which  they  ha«l  made  with  tlu>  democrats  and 
kni»^lits,  liy  remo\  in«^  the  restrictions  placed  t»n  ihc  tribunate 
and  hy  sccnrin<;  tlie  |>a.ssa;,'e  «>f  a  law  which  stipnlat(«l  that 
the  juries  should  henceforth  he  composed  of  senat(»rs,  knii^hts, 
ami  rej)resciit:iti\-cs  of  the  commons  known  as  tnhuiu  m  rum. 
\\y  the  pa.^>a-r  of  tlu-.c  luo  hills  the  repeal  t)f  Sulla's  political 
le<i:islation  was  complete,  and  the  senate  lost  the  slrcn^^th  which 
his  m«'asurcs  had  ;i'ivi-n  if.  (  )nly  the  non-political  judicial  and 
adminiNtrati\c  <-lian'i"es  coi«tinuc(|  in  fon-c.  Paler  the  «(»n- 
servatives  were  still  further  humiliateil  hy  sceinjj:  Pompey,  in 
s|)ite  of  theii  \  i;4dron->  opposition,  \t  >tcd  with  the  extraordinary 
j)()W<is  whicii  the  (iahinian  and  Manilian  laws,  aN  we  have 
already  noticed,  umvc  him  for  the  campaio;ns  aj^ainst  the  pirates 
.md  a<jainst  Mithridates. 

292.  The  Political  Sympathies  of  M.  Tullius  Cicero. 
Tliese  two  campaigns  of  <-ourse  took  Pom|)ey  away  from  Home 
and  removed  him  from  all  direct  j)articipation  in  jiolitics  u[) 
to  llie  close  of  the  y«'ar.T.2.  It  is  within  this  period  that  the 
Catilinarian  <ons|»iracy  falls,  and  it  was  this  c(»nsf)iracy  which 
l»roniiht  into  prominence  the  Roman  orator,  Marcus  Tullius 
Cicero.  Cicero  wa>  horn  at  Arjumnn  in  1(M».  1)\  descent 
lie  was  a  kni^dil  and  a  "new  man,"  or  //or//,s-  //0///0,  since  none 
of   his   ancestors    had    held    a    curule   otiice.      By    profession    he 


:'"l?^r'5t 


THE    1{E0INN1N<;    of    THI.    i;K\  ol.l  THi.N 


Kit 


was  an  a.lvocate.  The  iidhience  which  these  facts  had  ni>on 
Inm.  strengthened  by  his  naturally  cautious  temperan.c.l. 
made   Inni   a   moderate  in  politics,   and  a   strong   sui^portcr  ot 


cirrijo 


,1h.  constitution  and  of  c.mstitutional  methods      The  react.on- 
arv  programme  of  Sulla  was  as  little  to  his  taste  as  the  r-vo!n 
ti/marv "methods  of  the  deniocnits.     In  fact,  he  entered  public 


162 


ROMAN    HISTOUY 


life  as  a  critic  of  our  of  Snll;i'>  sujjportcrs  and  won  his  political 
re})Utati()ii  hy  siipiuTssin^i:  tlir  iij)ri'^in<^  of  llic  radicals  under 
Catiline. 

293.  The    Catilinarian   Conspiracy,    66-63  B.   C.      At 

the  outset  this  movement  Mcms  to  have  had  for  its  ol)ject  an 
im})rovement  in  tlir  (oiidition  of  certain  classes  in  Home  and 
throULdiont  Italv  l>v  <-on>liliiti(Mi;il,  or  ;it  IcMst  l)y  peaceful, 
methods,  llic  repeated  di>;ipjM)intm(iits  which  its  leaders 
met  in  the  veurs  tUl-Ct \  letl  l<»  the  formation  of  a  secret  con- 
spiracv,  readv  to  use  anv  tneans  whatsoever  for  the  accomplish- 
ment  of  its  purpose.  \\  tliis  point  the  timid,  the  judicious, 
and  in  lar^^c  measure  the  rcspectnhlc  supporters  of  the  move- 
ment fell  away,  and  its  further  (K-vdopment  was  left  in  the 
liands  of  moral  and  iinai'cial  bankrupts  or  of  lumest  fanatics 
and  adventurers.  Tlieir  leader  was  a  patrician,  I..  Ser^'ius 
Catiline,  lie  rr])reseiils  a  ty|»e  u(*\  unconunon  in  tliis  period, 
lie  was  aeeomplislied,  luave,  dashin«r,  restlessly  encr^rctic, 
and  liad  a  eiiarm  of  manner  which  attraetcil  others,  hut  he 
lacked  the  moral  (ihre,  the  mental  halauee.  the  lar^'eness  of 
outlook,  and  the  al)ility  to  or^auize  ami  direct  which  the  true 
leader  ne«d>.  He  <anie  h.rward  in  IT)  as  a  candidah'  for  the 
consulship,  hut  lie  wa*  cliart,^'<l  with  extortion  in  Africa,  and 
not  allowed  to  stand  Idr  (.flicc.  He  presented  him.self  again 
in  (14.  Much  a-rainst  their  will,  the  senatorial  party  threw 
their  suj'p"''^  t'»  I'i^  o|)|>onent  Cicero.  The  knij^dits  and  the 
middle  (i.i>>eN  tlMr.uo;hout  Italy  also  supportc<l  Cicero,  hecaiise 
he  was  one  of  their  own  nuinher,  and  was  the  champion  of  law 
and  order.  Pompry  liel|»ed  him  l)ecau.se  lie  had  advocated 
the  Cal.inian  and  Manilian  laws,  and  the  orator  was  returned 
at  the  head  of  the  polls.  Driven  to  extreme- measures  hy  his 
defeat,  Catiline  plamied  lo  murder  tlie  iiia;j.ist rates  and  take 
the  (itv  hv  force.  His  plans  were  discovered;  he  was  forced 
to  leave  the  city,  and  fell  in  battle  in  Ktruria.  The  Catilinarian 
leaders  in  Rome  were  put  t(»  death,  and  Cicero  was  hailed 
"FatluT  of  liis  Country." 

294.  Cicero*s  Political  Methods.     Cicero's  political  course 


THE    BEGINNING    OF   THE   KEVOLUTIOX 


163 


was  based  u})on  a  new  method  of  securin<!;  strength  for 
the  social  fabric,  (xaius  Gracchus  had  exalted  the  middle 
classes  at  the  exi)en.>>e  of  the  nobility,  Sulla  had  restored  the 
supremacy  of  the  senate,  and  thereby  antagonized  the  middle 
classes.  Now  Cicero  sought  to  unite  both  senators  and  knights 
in  a  joint  defense  of  the  cause  of  law  and  order.  His  eii'orts 
were  as  futile  as  theirs  had  been,  l>ec;mse  die  Uonuin  empire 
had  outgrown  the  old  regime,  and  because  aml)itious  lea<lcrs 
had  been  taught  l)y  the  examples  of  Sulla,  of  ^larius,  and  of 
Fonipey  to  look  t(j  the  sword,  and  not  to  the  ballot,  as  the 
source  of  |)olitical  power. 

295.  Pompey's  Disappointment.  The  lack  of  tact  and 
foresight  in  the  methods  of  the  conservative  party  came  out 
clearly  enough  two  years  after  the  supj)ression  of  the  Catili- 
narian cons|)iracy,  on  Fomj)ey's  return  from  his  cami)aigns 
against  Mithridates.  By  treating  I*omi>ey  generously  at  that 
time  it  could  have  made  him  its  supporter,  but  its  failure  to 
gratify  his  reasonable  expectations  forced  him  into  an  alliauee 
with  C.  .Julius  ('aesar  and  Crassus. 

296.  Caius  Julius  Caesar.  Caesar  had  not  been  a  prom- 
inent figure  in  politics  up  to  this  time.  He  liad  shown  liis 
colors  plainly  enough,  however,  at  tlie  funeral  of  his  aunt, 
who  was  the  wife  of  Marius,  by  displaying  in  tlie  funeral 
procession,  the  bust,  of  that  distinguished  general  and  demo- 
cratic leadwr,  and  by  setting  u[)  again  the  Cimbrian  trophies  of 
Marius  which  Sulla  had  removed.  While  Pom|)ey  luul  been 
vainly  trying  to  luring  the  seiiale  to  listen  to  his  claims,  Caesar 
had  been  j)ropraetor  of  Sj)ain.  Fompey  and  Crassus  were  not 
on  good  terms,  but  it  was  not  dilhcult  for  Caesar  to  bring  them 
together  on  the  basis  of  their  connnon  needs.  Their  com- 
pact, which  was  made  in  (iO  n.  <  .,  and  which  is  commonly 
known  as  the  hrst  triumvirate,  was  mcn^ly  a  private  under- 
standing. 

297.  The  Triumvirate  Controls  Roman  Politics.  I'nder 
it  Caesar  was  elected  for  the  following  year  to  tlie  consulship; 
lands  were  given  to  Pompty  >  veterans,  and  his  acts  in  tlie  Hast 


164 


IU)M\\    HISTORY 


were  ratifk'd.     What  Cnissus  ^oi  from  tlu*  hart^uiii  i:s  not  clear — 
pcrliaps    certain    tax    coiicrssions,    (»r   |)(»ssil>ly    assurance   of   a 
future  consuLslnp.     Provision  \va>  niadi*  tor  (  ac^ur's  future  by 
a  measure  wliich  made  him  governor  of  Cisalpine  (laul  and 
lUyricum  for  a  period  of  five  year^,  roiuitin^  from  March  1, 
59  B.  c,  with   an  army  of   three  legions.     To  this  the  senate, 
perhaps   under   the  influence   of    Pompiy,   added  Transalj)ine 
Gaul  and  a  fourth   \e^nm.     At  the  end  of  his  year  of  ofHce, 
Caesar  was  unwilhng  to  depart   from    the  city  and   leave   the 
interests  of  the  triumvirate  in  the  hands  of  two  such  tactless 
leaders  as-I*omp(y  and  Cra>sus,  witiiout  humhhng  the  senate 
in  such  a  way  that  it  would  not  rhire  to  u|>set  his  plans  during 
his  absence.     lie  secured  his  oljject  by  humiliating  and  send- 
ing from   Home   two   of   tht-   abhst    senatorial   leaders,    Cicero 
and  Cato.     The  imthods  whirli  he  usrd  in  accomplishing  his 
purjjose  had  a  touch  of  humor  or  cynicism   in  them.     Cicero, 
the   cliamj)ion    of    tlic   constitution,    was    banished    for   having 
viohited    the   constitution   during   his   consulshij)   by   executing 
the  Catilinarian  consj)irators  without  granting  them  an  appeal 
to  the  people.     Honest   Cato  was  sent  to  Cyj)rus  on  the  dis- 
honest mission  of  seizing  that  island  and  its  treasure.     Cicero's 
recall  from  exile  in  57  raised  tlie  spirits  of  the  senatorial  I>arty, 
but  its  ho[>es  were  crushed  again  by  the  renewal  of  the  triumvi- 
rate the  following  year,   by  tlie  extension  of  Caesar's  term  of 
office  for  another  period  of   five  years,  and  l)y  the  assignment 
of  Spain  and  Syria   to   Pompey   and   Crassus   respectively   for 
five  years.     Pompey  lingered  in  Rome,  but  Cra.ssus  set  out  for 
the    East,  wliere  he  fell  on  the  field  of  Carrlue  in  a  campaign 
against  the  Parthians. 

298.  The  Estrangement  of  Caesar  and  Pompey.  The 
personal  bond  which  held  P(»mpey  and  Caesar  together  liad 
been  severed  in  .">  ^  l)y  the  <leath  of  Pompcy's  wife  Julia,  who 
was  the  daughter  of  ( 'aesar.  The  death  of  Crassus  in  the  follow- 
ing year  destroyed  the  balance  of  jjower  in  the  triumvirate, 
and  brought  Caesar  iind  Pompey  face  to  face  as  rivals.  Pf)m- 
pey,  at  least,  seemed  to  be  waiting  only  for  the  right  time  to 


THE   BEGIXNIXG    OF   THE   REVOLUTION 


165 


strike.     The  right  moment  seemed  to  come  in  52,  w  lien  he  was 
elected  sole  consul. 

299.  The  Questions  at  Issue.  The  senate,  which  had 
been  watching  eagerly  for  signs  of  an  estrangement  between 
the  two  men,  now  began  to  move  boldly  against  Caesar;  and 
Pompey,  after  showing  the  h(\sitation  and  duplicity  which  was 
so  characteristic  of  him  in  political  matters,  at  last  went  over 
to  its  side.  Caesar's  second  term  of  five  years  would  come  to 
an  end  March  1,  49,  but  he  exi)ected  that,  in  accordance  with 
precedent,  his  governorship  would  be  extended  to  the  end  of 
the  year.  Now  he  was  a  candidate  for  the  consulshii)  for  the 
year  48,  and  so  hoped  to  step  from  the  proconsulship  to  the 
consulship  at  the  end  of  the  year  49  without  a  break.  This 
programme  he  was  anxious  to  carry  out,  because,  if  an  interval 
should  elapse  between  his  incumbencv  of  the  tw^o  offices,  it 
would  give  his  enemies  at  Rome  an  op[)ortunity  to  bring  politi- 
cal charges  against  him  as  a  private  citizen,  which  could  not 
be  brought  against  him  if  he  held  office. 

300.  Civil  War  Breaks  Out  in  49  B.  C.  Rumors  reached 
him  in  Gaul  in  50  that  the  senate  was  planning  to  appoint  a 
governor  to  succeed  him  before  tlie  close  of  the  year  49.  Con- 
sequently, when  the  new  consuls  called  the  senate  together 
January  1,  49  b.  c,  a  re[)resentative  of  Caesar  laid  before  that 
body  the  proposals  of  his  absent  master.  Their  exact  charac- 
ter is  unknown  to  us,  but  they  probably  covered  some  or  all 
of  the  points  mentioned  above.  The  senate,  however,  refused 
to  listen  to  them,  and  declared  that  he  would  be  a  public  enemy 
unless  he  gave  up  his  provinces  and  liis  army  before  the  first 
of  July,  49.  Two  tribunes  in  the  senate  who  favored  his 
cause  and  interposed  their  vetoes  to  the  senate's  action,  were 
threatened  with  personal  violence,  and  set  out  at  once  for  Caesar's 
camp  at  Ravenna,  and  Caesar  replied  to  the  challenge  of  the 
senate  and  Pompey  by  crossing  the  frontier  into  Italy,  and 
marching  toward  Rome  to  restore  the  tribunes  to  their  rightful 
authority. 

301.  Summary  of  Events   at   Home   from    133   to   49 


166 


ROMAN   ms-'(>i;Y 


B.  C.  VVf  notircd  111  ilie  in(\  ions  period  that  tlic  small  fanners 
and  free  lahonTs  in  Italy  were  bein^^  driven  into  bankruptcy. 
Til)erius  (iraeeliu>  >oujLi*ht  to  relieve  lliein  by  dividing  up  the 
state  land  ainont,^  the  poor.  The  xMiate,  whieh  was  made  up 
lart^i^ly  of  rich  men  who  w«r«'  ocenpyini?  this  land,  opposed 
and  overthrew  him.  His  brother,  ( laiiis,  tetok  n[)  the  reform 
and  i)y  his  lej^islation  unil«'(l  the  poor  peoj)le  ;md  the  kni<j:lits 
a^'aiiist  the  seiuite.  He,  too,  was  overthrown,  Imt  the  senate's 
dis^raeeful  eoiuhiet  of  tile  war  aij:ainst  Ju^urtha,  ti'a\e  the  dem- 
oerats  an  opporlumty  to  adv.iner  their  leader  Marius.  'Vhv 
Italians  won  Koman  eiti/enship  in  the  Social  \N;ir.  The  dcm- 
(xrats  nnder  Marins  ;ind  Citma  ^-jiincd  control  of  Rome,  bnt 
were  driven  onl  by  Sulla  on  his  return  from  the  war  with  Mith- 
ridates.  Sulla  was  made  diet.itor,  and  installed  the  senate  in 
[)ower  a^ain,  but  his  ;irran<i'emenls  were  o\(  rtui-niMl  by  the  con- 
suls, Pompiy  ;ind  <  rassns,  who  latei*  joined  <  aesar- in  formin^i; 
the  first  triiuuvirat*'.  These  thi-ee  men  took  the  n-(»\  (>i-inuent 
into  tlieir  own  liand>,  bnt  the  death  of  ('lassus,  and  tlie  (piarrel 
between  <  *;i«>;n-  ;nid  l*onipe\  led  to  a  struj^'^ile  between  them  for 
sU[M'eme  [)o\v«i-,   and   civil    \\:\r  folloU<'d. 


CHAinM^K   X 

THE  DKA'I'H  STKlOOl.K  ol"    rilE  I?i:!THLIC 

(P.I  27   u.  c.) 

How  Ca«N;ir  ni;nlt'  liimsrlf  inastrrof  the  Uuniati  umM,  and  war.  us.'uissinated 
— Jlow    ( Utav  laiiiis.    Antony.   an«l    li(i)iilii:;   put    liouii  tlu'   la;.l   eirori  of   tlie 

rei)iil>lieans liou    0(ta\iamis  « st  aUii.lifd  tlir   i'^iiipire.  and   tluis  coniijletcd 

the  revolution 

302.  Caesar's  Chances  of  Success.  To  cn;ss  the  Rubi- 
con iut(»  Italy  with  a  sin;',le  Ic'^iou,  as  ('aesar  did,  seemed  the 
hei«iht  of  rashness,  lie  had  behind  him  <»nly  the  (Jallic  prov- 
inces and  an  army  of  nine  legions  (puirtercd  at  dill'crenl  points 
in  the  North.  His  enemies  controlled  all  the  rest  of  the  civil- 
ized world  and  the  Romjui  treasury,  ard  had  a  force  far  out- 
numl>ci-i?ij.c  his.  He  was  a  tcbcl  a;i:ainst  a  state  which  had 
|)laced  itself  under  the  protection  of  the  most  experienced  gen- 
eral of  the  time.  But  in  Caesar's  caiu|>  there  was  one  leader 
and  one  plan  of  campaign  only.  The  coun.si*ls  of  his  enemies 
were  divided,  and  even  Rompey's  auth(U-ity  was  not  si>^)reme. 
Caesar's  troops  were  within  striking  dislaiice  of  Italy,  and 
w(>re  hardened  by  years  of  camj>aigning  in  (iaul.  Rompey 
had  to  rely  largely  upon  levies  of  new  i-ecruits  or  of  veterans 
long  out  of  service. 

303.  The   Campaigns   in  Italy  and  Spain  in  49  B.  C. 

Tlie  course  of  c\culs  proved  the  wisdom  of  Caesar's  decision. 
Advancing  (juickly  from  Ravenna  along  the  coast  of  the  Adriatic, 
he  threw  the  Rom])eians  at  Rome  int^)  such  a  })anic  that  they 
evacuated  the  city  within  a  fortnight,  and  withdrew  lia.stily  to- 
ward the  southeast.  Rompey  saw  that  it  was  useless  to  nuike 
a  stand  in  Italy,  and  hurrving  down  to  Rrundisium  embarked 
for  Epirus  just  in  time  to  escape  being  interce})ted  by  his  oppo- 
nent. Caesar  felt  himself  un|)re])ared  to  follow  the  enemy  at 
once,  antl  after  a  few  week's  stay  in  Italy,  crossed  over  to  Spain, 


168 


ROMAN    msTOUV 


wliich  was  held  for  Poiiipcy  by  his  three  hriitnumts,  IVtrrius, 
AiViinius,  and  \'arn>.  By  a  cltvcr  laow  on  Caesar's  part, 
Petreius  and  Afranius  were  cut  oil  from  their  suppHes  and 
forced  to  surrender,  and  Varro's  submission  soon  followed. 
Spain  had  been  won  within  a  month  and  a  half  of  (W'sar's 
arrival  in  the  |)eninsula. 

304.  Caesar  Lands  in  Epirus  in  49  B.  C.  Then  lie 
returned  for  the  real  slru«,^^de  witii  Fom()ey.  With  six  legions 
lie  made  a  sueeessful  landing  at  Orieum  in  Kpirus  in  Novem- 
ber, 41),  and  in  A[)ril  of  the  following  y^ar  .Mark  Antony  joined 
liim  with  four  more,  luit  Cacsiir's  legions  were  depleted  by 
sickness  and  long  canijniigns,  while  Pompey's  army  had  grown 
to  a  total  of  nine  legictus,  supported  by  a  large  l)ody  of  auxil- 
iaries and  a  strong  fleet. 

306.  The    Battle   of    Pharsalus,   August   9,    48   B.   C. 

Caesar  |)laced  his  army  between  Dyrrachium  and  Pompey's 
canij),  and  at  one*'  began  olfcnsive  operations  in  the  hope  of 
blockading  him;  but  the  I'omju'ian  forces  l)roke  through  his 
lines  and  inllicted  s(.  severe  ;i  !.,>>  upon  jiin,  diat  laler,  wlicn 
C^icsar  advanced  into  Hicssaly,  Pompey  followed  him  and 
Wiis  induied  In  his  o\erconfideni  advisers  to  risk  a  battle  at 
I*harsalus.  P(jmpey's  luirsemen  swept  down  upon  Caesar's 
cavalry,  overwlielmed  them,  and  charged  Caesar's  infantry  on 
the  flank,  but  the  tenth  legion,  supported  by  cohorts  of  veter- 
ans, which  were  stationed  at  this  point,  stood  like  a  rock.  At 
this  moment  Caesar  threw  his  reserves  into  the  battle  and  Pom- 
pey's lines  Ijnjke  and  retreated  in  disorder. 

306.  The  Death  of  Pompey.  Pompey  himself,  who  fled 
for  safety  to  Egy[)t,  w;is  j.iit  to  death  by  onler  of  King 
Ptolemy,  as  he  was  landing  al  Pelusium.  "His  remains  were 
buried  on  the  shore,"  as  Ai)piaii  tells  us,  "and  a  small  monu- 
ment was  ('(•((  ted  over  tliem,  on  which  .some  one  wrote  this 
inscription:  'What  a  pitiful  tomb  is  here  f(jr  one  who  had 
temples  in  al)undance.' "  "Snch;'  says  the  Poman  historian 
Velleius  Paterculus,  "was  tlic  departure  from  life  of  a  nio.st 
excellent   and    illusliions   ninn,   after   thicc    (onsnlships   and   as 


THE    DEATH    STRUGGLE    OF   THE   REPUBLIC 


169 


many  triumphs,  who  had  rule<l  tiie  whole  world  and  had  reached 
a  ])ositi()n  above  which  it  was  not  i)o.ssible  to  rise.' 

307.  Affairs  in  Egypt  and  Armenia,  and  the  Battle  of 
Thapsus  in  46  B.  C.  'Po  Egypt  (/aesar  followed  the  Pompe- 
ians,  and  remtdned  there,  held  by  the  settlement  of  political 
ad'airs  and  by  the  charms  of  the  Egyptian  (jueen  Cleopatra, 
until  the  late  si)ring  of  17,  when  he  was  called  to  Armenia 
Minor  to  check  the  ambitious  i)rojeels  of  Pharnaces,  son  of 
the  Mithridates  who  had  caused  the  Romans  .so  much  trouble 
a  (piarter  of  a  century  before.  TUv  battle  of  Zela  restored 
the  Roman  l)^^stige  in  that  region,  and(^iesar  was  free  to  turn 
his  attention  to  the  massing  of  the  Pompeian  forces  in  Africa. 
Landing  near  Iladrumetum,  lu«  defeated  Scipio  the  Pompeian 
leader  with  his  allies  at  Thapsus,  and  captured  Utica  soon  after, 
notwilhslaiiding  Cato's  vigorous  clforts  to  defend  it. 

308.  The  Death  of  Cato.    When  Cato  saw   that  the  city 
could  be  held  no  longer  he  took  his  own  life.     The  story  of 
his  death  has  been  told  by  one  of  Caesar's  own  followers:  "Cato 
hiuLself  arranged  everything  with   the  greatest  care  and  com- 
mended his  children  to  his  prociuacsior  Lucius  Caesar  without 
exciting   suspicion,   and    witliout   showing   any   change   in   his 
bearing  and  conversation  from  what  they  had  been  aforetime. 
Then  he  withdrew,  taking  willi  him  secretly  into  his  bedchamber 
a  sword  upon  which  he  cast   himself.     He  had  already  fallen, 
altliough  life  was  not  yet  extinct,   when  a  physician  and  his 
friends,   who.se  suspicions  had   been   arou.sed,   rushed   into  his 
chamber  amP  applied  themselves  to  tlie  bringing  together  and 
the  binding  up  of  his  wound,  but  Cato  with  his  own  hands 
ruthlessly    tore  open    tlie   wound,  and    with  a  resolute    heart 
brought  his  life  to  an  end."     Ciiio  of  Utica,  as  he  was  hence- 
forth styled  from  the  scene  of  his  death,  was  a  worthy  descend- 
ant of  his  great-grandfather  the  censor.     He  may  be  called 
the  last  of  the  old-time  Romans.     A  man  of  ostentatious  simplic- 
ity, of  an  affected  austerity  and  directness  of  manner,  of  the 
strictest  integrity  when  the  Roman  state  or  his  fellow-citizens 
were  concerned,  but  lacking  in  a  sen.se  of  justice  or  mercy  to- 


170 


ROMAN   HISTORY 


ward  foreigners,  he  wns  still  tlu-  firm  and  consistent  cliainjuon 
of  the  republie,  and  ueeepled  i»(>  Cdinproinise  with  the  advoeiites 
of  autocraey.  His  death  was  rej^arded  as  a  (ha  ma  tic  |)ro()f 
of  the  end  of  the  rei>ubhc,  and  created  a  j)r()l()und  sensation 
tliroughoiit  the  Roman  wtnld,  so  that  even  Caesar,  notwith- 
standing the  i)ressure  of  liis  further  campaii^nis  a^^ainst  the 
Pompeian  forces,  took  time  to  reply  in  his  Anfi-Cato  to  the 
biograpJiy  of  Cato  which  ('ieero  wrote,  and  to  defend  in  it  his 
,  own  {johtical  eourse. 

309.  Battle  of  Munda,  45  B.  C.  Hie  remnants  ,-f  tlie 
Pompeian  forces  whicli  had  collected  in  Spain  Caesar  crushe(J 
on  the  field  of  JMuiuhi,  where  fell  his  billerest  foe  I.abienns, 
his  Gallic  lieutenant,  the  «jnly  officer  who  had  «leserted  him 
when  he  crossed  into  Italv. 

310.  The   Assassination  of  Caesar  in  44  B.  C.     From 
Munda  Caesar  returned  to  Kome  to  carry  out  ihe  reforms  upon 
which  he  had  set  his  heart.      But  while  lie  was  busily  ent^a^jed 
in    these   matters,    a    plot   was    forniin;^;   a<;ainst    his    life      The 
conspirators  were  actuated  by  personal  and  by  polilical  motives. 
Many  of  them   wen-  jealous  of  Caesar,  or,   lik(    Cassius,   dis- 
satisfied  with    the    recognition    which    they   had    received   from 
him.     Many  members  of  the  senate  (for  about  sixt\   senators 
took  part  in  the  conspiracy)  were  agj^rieved  at  the  loss  of  power 
and  prestige  wliich  thai  body  had  sullVred  at  his  hands.     Their 
smouldering  discontent  \^  as  kindled  into  flame  by  the  new  [)owers 
and  honors  conferred  on  Caesar  in  the  early  part  of  44,  and  b\' 
the  rumors,  which  were  current,  that  he  would  be  made  king 
and   would    transfer   the   seat   of    government    to   Alexandria. 
The  time  and  j)lace  whicti  they  selected  for  the  ik-vd  were  the 
Ides  of  March   and   the  senate   housr.      Crowding   about  him 
as  if  presenting  a  petition,  one  of  their  mnnber,  Casca,  st:tl)bed 
him  with  a  dagger,  the  others  joined  in  the  a.>anlt,  and  Caesar 
fell  wounded  to  the  death,  at  the  foot  of  »hi'  <^tatue  of  his  great 
rival  Pompey. 

311.  Caesar's     Purpose     Threefold.    The    work    which 
Caesar  had  set  himself  to  do  after  the  battle  of  Pliarsalus,  and 


THE   DEATn    STRI  (iCLE   oF    THE    REPUBLIC 


171 


which  was  h^ft  unfinished  at  his  death,  was  threefold.  He 
wislied  to  suppress  within  the  limits  of  Ronum  territory  all 
armed  resistance  to  a  central  authority,  to  (\stablish  in  Rome 
a  pcM-manent  government  strong  enough  to  carry  out  a  positive 
policy  in  spite  of  all  opposition,  and  finally  to  knit  together 


JFLIITS  CAESAR 

all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire  and  give  the  provinces  a  good 
government.  We  liave  already  seen  him  attain  his  first  object. 
312.  How  He  Made  Himself  Master  of  the  State.  To 
accomplish  his  secon<l  purpose  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
the  state  and  made  his  position  secure,  partly  by  increasing 
his  own  power,  partly  by  diminishing  the  influence  of  other 


170 


ItOMW     lll>lM|;\ 


wanl  f()rci;^ncr->.  he  \\;i>  ^lill  tin-  iimi  ;iii<]  (•<Mis!>l('iit  <'luiiii|iinii 
of  tlic  repuhlii-,  and  accrplcil  no  f<>iii[ir(Hiii>c  with  llir  .MKcjcalrs 
of  autoenu-v.  His  di-atli  \va^  r('t;nnl«<l  ;t>  a  dranialic  proof 
of  the  ciul  ( )f  the  iv[)iil)li<-,  aii«l  crcah-d  a  |>rol'oiiii(l  M-iisalion 
tlirouj^lioiit  llu'  Koiiiaii  wnild,  n,,  dial  rv<'ii  ("Mc-^iir,  iiolwilli- 
.standing'  tin*  [H'c^^iiit  ol  lu>  Im-difi-  campaii-n^  auaiiisl  da- 
Poiiij)fian  forces,  look  hinc  li»  vv\>\y  in  lii>  An/i-Cnhi  lo  da- 
biography  of  Calo  which  ("icjni  v>r<ilc,  and  to  defend  in  it  hi.-. 
,  own  iJohtieal  coinsc  . 

309.  Battle   of   Munda,   45  B.  C.    Th.    ivnuiiini.  ..t   da- 

Poinpeiaii  forces  whirfi  h;id  inllcicd  in  Spain  ('ae^ar  crushed 
on  llie  field  of  Mnnthi,  where  h-ll  his  liillcrot  hie  I,;il>icnns, 
[lis  (ialhe  heiitenant,  da-  onlv  odieei*  \\h(t  h.id  doeiled  him 
when  lie  crossed  inlet  Italy. 

310.  The    Assassination  of  Caesar  in  44  B.  C.     Imoih 

Muiida  ('aesar  ninriu-t|  |<i  Uonn    \<>  <  ;ir'\   onl   da-  i"eh)rins  u|>oii 
wfiich  lie  had  set   hi>  he.irl.      linl   while  he  \\;i>  hn>ily  en^^^agcd 
in    these    inalteis,    a    plot    was    h»i"inin;j,'    ;i»;;iin>l    hi>    lih-       The 
conspirators  were  ;icln.ilcd  hv  pergonal  ;ind  In  |)ohli<-;il  inotixcs. 
Man}    of    them    \\*i.     |..ilon>    ol    (  ar^ai-,   or,    hkc   < ';is>iii-.^    ,h>- 
satished    with    the    reeo<i;nilioii    uhirh    thty    had    r«'eei\ed    from 
him.     Many  nicndiers  i>\'  the  M'liale  {U>r  ahonl   sixty  >enator> 
to(tk  part  in  the  e«»n>pira<  \  )  were  ai:;:ricv  cd  at  the  Io.n>  ttl'  powrr 
and  prestiL'c  which  th;if  \^<-i\\   h;id  Milhn'd  ;il  hi^  h;inil>.     Their 
sinouldtiiij^  (h^fontenl  \\a>  Ivindled  into  fhimeliy  the  new  po\\t'r.> 
and  honors  conferred  (ai  <";i(->ar  in  the  e;irl\   p.irl  of  -11,  and  hv 
the  rumors,  which  were  enrreni,  lluit  he  wonid  l.e  made  kin*'* 
and    wonld    transfer    the    >ciil    of     li'oxermnen!    lo    Aiexar^dria. 
Tile  time  aiai  place  which   ihey   ^cl<  ctcd   loi'   die  deed   w.  tc   da- 
Ides  of   March   and    tlie   m  ti;iic   house.     <  Vowdiiii:'   about    him 
as  if  pre.sentinj^'  a  ju'tition,  ..ne  of  their  ninnl»ci-,  Tax-.i.  stubbed 
him  witli  a  da<,'ger,  tla- others  jc/mcrl  in  the  ass;nih.  ;ind  (  *ic>ar 
fell  wounded  to  the  death    at   llic  foot  of  f\'r  ^•;t«ne  of  hi>  •'-'-eat 
rival  Pompc  y. 

311.  Caesar's     Purpose     Threefold.     'Hie     work     which 
Cae>ar  had  Mt  hiniMdf  to  do  after  the  battle  of  Ph;irsalus,  and 


THK  DKArii   sri{r(a;ij:  oi     riir.  hkitblic 


171 


which  was  left  nnlinislied  at  his  death,  was  threefold.  He 
wished  to  suppress  within  the  limits  of  Roman  territory  all 
armed  resistanc-  l.^  a  cenlral  autla.rily,  to  establish  in  Uomc 
a  permancn.t  o(,vcrmnent  strong"  enou^di  to  carry  (»ut  a  positive 
|)oliey   in   spite  (»f  all  (»pposition,   and    finally   to  knil   lo^^cther 


T  I     T    I  1     -^      <  "  \    I    >A  R 


all  imrts  of  the  Roman  empire  and  ^ive  tlie  ])rovinces  a  o;(.od 
cr,,vernnienl.      We  have  already  seiMi  him  attain  his  first  object. 

^  312.  How  He  Made  Himself  Master  of  the  State.    1^) 

aeeom|)lisli  his  second  purpose  he  put  himself  at  the  head  of 
die  slate  and  made  his  posili.m  si^ure,  partly  by  incrcasin^r 
his  own   power,   partly   by   diminishino-   the   influence  of  other 


172 


RO^[\^      Hi. STORY 


factors  in  the  novcnHiicut.  \n  4S  the  irihunici.in  |)(>\ver  was 
given  him  lor  litV,  and  in  H  he  was  made  diclator  for  life.  lie 
probably  held  the  |»rtKonsul.ship  j)ernianenfl\ ,  and  on  .several 
occasions  he  was  ivtjnlariy  elected  |o  the  eonsulshii).  The 
dictat(.rshi[),  consulship,  and  ]»r<»consnlshi[)  i^.-ive  liiin  all  the 
IH)sitive  [)ower  which  he  needed,  and  the  tribunician  authority 
enal)led  liiin  to  hold  all  other  nia;,'istrales  in  cheek.  Tlie  rna<.:- 
istrates  for  the  ininiediate  future  were  also  brou'dit  directiv 
under  liis  rnntrol  l)y  a  measure  which  allowed  him  to  name 
all  ofheijds  for  4:i,  as  well  .i>  the  consuls  and  tribunes  for  42. 
He  raised  the  senate  to  nine  hundn^l  in  munber,  and  thus 
robbed  it  of  its  exclusive  cliaracter,  and  he  took  care  that  his 
own  followers  sliould  constitute  a  maioritv  in  it.  As  for  the 
I)eoi>le,  tluy  met  as  before  in  the  comitia,  but  tlie  <(4ection  of 
candidates  for  office  by  (\-ics;ir,  .ind  the  fart  that  he  alone  was 
directly  or  indirectly  the  author  of  all  bills  l.iid  before  file  pop- 
ular assemblies,  made  the  mectin-^  of  tlicsc  bodies  lanvlv  a 
inattiT  of  form. 

313.  How  He  Unified  the  Empire.  Thr  measures  which 
he  took  to  accomplisli  his  third  purpose  wen  e\c(4lent.  lie 
relicncd  tlie  con^restion  of  Rome  l)y  sending,'  out  colonies,  and 
by  cuttin<r  down  the  list  of  iho-c  who  received  free  sup[)lies 
of  grain.  In  his  i(hnirable  Miniiripal  Lair  he  drew  up  a  ehar- 
ter  for  Italian  towns,  which  o-ave  them  their  own  popular  assem- 
blies, senat<'s,  ma<;ist rates,  and  courts.  rj)on  the  provinces 
he  conferred  a  <i;reat  l)oon  by  takin<^r  into  his  own  hands  the 
ap{>ointment  of  provincial  i^ovcrnors.  Henceforth  {)rovinces 
ceascMl  to  be  i)rincipalitics  which  were  used  by  olHcials  in  fill- 
inf^  their  pockets  or  in  a<iNuin  iult  their  political  fortunes.  Every 
^rovcrnor  felt  his  responsibiiify  to  a  ruler  wlio  would  hold  him 
strictly  to  account.  Each  province  became  an  integral  part 
of  the  F.oman  empire,  and  its  interests  received  some  part  of 
the  care,  which,  under  the  npuhlic,  had  been  irWvn  to  Italy 
only.  Under  the  repultlic,  \\v  have  said,  for  it  is  clear  that 
the  republic  was  now  .i  tliini--  of  (he  past,  and  that  Caesar  hafl 
really    taken    into   his    li.iiid>  all    those    power.,   which    in  their 


Tin:  DEATH  sTur(;(iLi:  of  the  republic 


173 


natural   development   gave   Augustus   and   his  successors   their 

exalted  position. 

314.  Events  which  Followed  Caesar's  Death.  Although 
Caesar  was  dead,  l)oth  parties,  the  consinrators  and  the  personal 
and  political  friends  of  the  dead  leader,  rested  on  their  arms. 
Neither  faction  knew  the  strength  of  the  other  nor  the  senti- 
ment of  the  people.  Tlie  (^lesarian  consul  Mark  Antony 
thought  it  best  to  propose  a  compromise,  and  Marcus  and 
Decinms  Brutus,  Cassius,  and  the  other  conspirators  accei>ted 
it.  Caesar's  arrangements  for  the  future  were  ratified,  but 
no  inquiry  was  to  be  nuule  into  the  circumstances  of  his  death. 

315.  Octavius  Appears  in  Italy.  An  unexpected  turn 
was  given  to  alTairs  by  the  arrival  in  Italy  of  Octavius,  Caesar's 
grand-nepliew,  a  young  man  in  his  Mineteenth  year,  whom 
iiie  dictator  had  nnuwd  as  his  heir.  His  fidelity  in  carrying 
out  the  generous  provisions  of  Caesar's  will,  his  tactful  course, 
and  the  fact  that  he  bore  the  name  of  their  late  leader  drew  to 
him  so  many  of  Caesar's  veterans  that  Antony,  for  fear  of  los- 
ing all  his  trooi)s,  hastily  left  Home  for  the  North  with  the 
forces  which  were  still  loyal  to  him. 

316.  Mutina,  43  B.  C.  Antony  had  secured  by  law  the 
transfer  to  himself  of  Cisalpine  (iaul,  which  had  originally  been 
assigned  to  Decimus  I'rutus,  one  of  tlie  cons})irators.  His 
pur})ose  now  was  to  drive  out  Brutus  and  take  possession  of 
the  province.  The  senate  called  Octavius  to  its  assistance 
and  sent  him  with  Hirtius  and  Pansa,  the  two  consuls  of  tlie 
year  43,  to  the  relief  of  Brutus.     Antony  was  worsted  at  Mutina. 

317.  The  Second  Triumvirate  Formed  in  43  B.  C. 
But  the  victory  was  dearly  bought.  Hirtius  and  Pansa  were 
killed,  and  Octavius  was  so  aggrieved  at  the  assignment  of  the 
vacant  position  of  conunander-in-chief  to  Brutus  that  he  came 
to  an  understanding  with  Antony  and  his  ally  Lepidus,  and 
the  three  men  formed  a  compact,  commonly  known  as  the 
second  triumvirate,  whicli  was  later  ratified  by  law,  and  gave 
them  even  more  extensive  po^^cM•s  than  PoniDcv,  Caesar,  and 
Crassus  had  exercised  twenty  years  before 


174 


ROMAX    IIISTOHY 


318.  Cicero's  Part  in  the  Struggle.  Their  return  to 
Rome  was  followed  hy  a  reiiijii  of  tmor  wiiieli  rivaled  that  of 
Sulla.  ( "ieero  wa.s  one  of  the  earl\-  \i(tiiii.s  of  their  fur\'.  He 
had  been,  the  head  and  front  of  tlie  senatorial  op{)osition,  and 
however  vaint^lorious  he  may  ha\e  heen  of  his  eoiisulship, 
however  weak  durin<^  his  year  (»f  exile,  and  vaeillatini^^  when 
the  war  broke  out  between  <';iesar  antl  roni}»ey,  in  this  j)eriod 
he  rose  to  the  full  stature  of  a  brave  jnan  of  action  and  a  states- 
man. His  seathin^  ilenuneiation  of  .Vntony  in  his  IMiiiippie 
orations,  his  brave  letters  to  the  f^overiKtrs  of  jirovinees,  en- 
C(juraging  them  to  ^tand  firm  for  ihe  senatorial  cause,  and 
his  bold  leaderslii'j  ui  the  senate  made  hi;]i  the  heart  and  soul 
of  the  lost  cau>e.  He  wa.^  put  on  the  list  of  the  |)roscribed  by 
Antony,  and  was  murdered  on  his  estate  near  Fonnia'  in  43  b.  (  . 

319.  Velleius*s  Eulogy  of  Cicero.  His  bravery  in  this 
last  stru«^^le  of  the  republic  a  century  later  not  undeservedly 
eidled  forth  from  Velleius  l*atirculus  this  enthusiastic  eulo<i:y 
of  him  and  denunciation  of  Antony:  "Thou  hast  robbed  Cicero, 
^lark  Antony,  of  the  li'^dit  of  life,  but  of  a  iio^ht  obscured  by  the 
clouds  of  trouble — of  his  declining'  years,  and  of  a  life  which 
wonld  have  l>een  more  urelciied  under  thee  as  prince  than  was 
death  under  thee  a>  triumvir,  but  tin  fame  and  the  glory  which 
his  deeds  and  words  brought  him  thou  hast  rather  exalted  than 
taken  from  him.  He  live>  and  will  live  \i\  memorv  for  all  time, 
and  so  long  as  this  worhi,  ruled  by  chance  (»r  by  j)rovidence, 
or  howi'ver  it  be  governed,  .so  Ion;.;'  a>  lin>  worlii  .shall  last  whose- 
significance,  structure,  and  constitution,  he  wius  almost  the  only 
Roman  to  discern,  to  <()m|)rchend,  and  to  set  forth  in  a  elear 
light  by  means  of  his  elo(pienci',  it  will  take  with  it  througli 
the  ages  the  i)raise  of  Cicero,  and  in  times  to  come  all  men 
will  execrate  tliy  crime  against  him,  and  tin-  hunmn  raee  shall 
disaj>pcar  from  the  earth  before  the  name  of  Cicero  dies." 

320.  Philippi,  42  B.  C.  Meain\hile  the  two  republiean 
leaders,  M.  Hrutus  and  Cassius,  had  withdrawn  to  the  East 
to  take  possession  of  their  |)rovinci's,  and  were  exerting  them- 
selves   to    the  utmcjst    to    prepare  for  the  struggle    which  they 


THE  DEATH   STRUGGLE  OF  THE   REPUBLIC 


175 


knew  to  Ik'  inevitable.  In  the  autunm  of  42  they  had  brought 
togetlier  at  Philipi)i  a  force  of  nineteen  legicms  of  foot  soldiers 
and  twenty  thousand  horsemen.  Here  they  were  met  by  the 
triumvirs  and  defeated.  Brutus  and  Cassius  took  their  own 
lives,  and  the  struggle  to  reestablisli  the  republic  was  at  an  end. 
321.  The  Roman  World  Divided  between  Octavianus 
and  Antony.  In  the  division  of  territory  which  followed  the 
vietory,  Oetavius,  or  Octavianus   as  he  was   called   after  his 


A  ROMAN  GALLEY 


adoption  l)y  Caesar,  took  Italy  and  the  West,  Antony  the  East, 
with  Alexandria  as  his  capital.  Lepidus  had  to  content  him- 
self wiUi  Africa,  and  plays  henceforth  a  minor  role. 

322.  Actium,  31  B.  C.  Tlie  compact  between  Octavianus 
and  Antony,  broken  only  by  temporary  misunderstandings, 
ran  for  ten"^  years,  but  the  rivalry  between  tlie  two  men  was 
too  intense  to  allow  thc^  arrangement  to  be  i)ermanent.  It 
was  believed   too  at    Rome   that   Antony  and   Cleopatra  were 


174 


ICOM  \N     ll!s|(Hn 


318.  Cicero's  Part  in  the  Struggle.  Tin n  i«  turn  u> 
Rouie  was  f<)llt»u«''l  1>\  a  rcijn  of  I.it!.!-  wiiic'i  rixaK'd  that  of 
Sulla.  ( 'iccro  \\a>  om-  nf  liit-  taii\  \Hiiiii-,  tif  llicii-  fur\ .  Jli- 
luiil  ht'Lii^  till'  !ica<l  and  fi(j!it  (»f  tlic  x-iialoiiai  oppositiiju,  and 
li(j\vev(T  \  aiii*^i<Mit»n>  In-  nia\  lia\r  lici-ii  of  lii-.  consulsliij), 
liu\vi'\(;r  wi-ak  dii?-iiin*  lil-  wai-  of  txiir,  and  \  acillatini:"  \^\n\i 
llu'  war  ln-okc  mil  Im-Iwccii  < 'a(->ar  and  INmipcy,  in  llii.^  jxiiml 
he  rose  Ut  tlie  full  slalnie  of  a  l>ra\e  man  (»f  a'  linn  and  a  states- 
man. His  scalliin^'  <l('mniciation  of  Antonv  in  his  r!iilij)j>ic 
oration^,  his  hrave  letters  to  vrr!ior>  of  jjroviuei's,  en- 
eoura.}j;injj;  them  to  >tand  (irm  for  i!i,  Miialorial  eaUM-,  and 
his  hold  Icadershiji  of  Hie  x-natc  inadf  hi:n  (he  heart  and  soul 
of  tlie  lost  eau-^e.  He  \va>  put  t»n  ihe  li>l  of  the  proserihed  !>_v 
Antony,  .111(1  \\a>  mnrdere<l  on  his  estate  neai*   l'\»rmia'  in  43  H.  c. 

319.  Velieius's  Eulogy  of  Cicero.  His  hraverv  in  this 
last  .strni^^ji:le  of  the  rejMihlie  a  eentury  later  not  nnde>er\eil!y 
called  forth  from  \'elleinN  I'aterenhis  this  enlhn.>iaMie  eiiioi'v 
of  him  and  denunciation  of  Antony:  "'i'liou  ha-'  roMx-d  <'ie(.-ro, 
Mark  Antony,  of  the  li^dit  of  life,  hut.  of  a  li^hl  ol»>eured  \)y  the 
elond.s  of  Ironhle  of  his  deelinin;  -,  and  of  a  life  which 
would  ha\c  heen  more  \vi-etehed  undei-  thee  a^  prince  than  wa^ 
death  under  thei-  a>  lriuni\ir,  hut  l!i(  fame  and  \\h'  i-lory  whieh 
his  deeds  and  \\oril>  hrou;^lil  him  iho.i  ha>l  ral'ier  exalted  thai 
laketi  from  him.  He  h\cs  an«l  will  live  i.i  niemor\  for  all  time, 
and  so  lonti*  «»s  llii>  world,  ruled  hy  eh.,  <  a-  1)\  ju'oxidenee, 
or  however  it  he^"o\erned.  soh'tn-  i-.  t'li.  world  shall  last  whos,- 
si^mhcanee,  st  rueture.  and  eoiiMiiuiion,  ne  \\a>  aliiiost  the  only 
Roman  to  di>eei-n,  lo  com[U'eliend,  and  to  set  h)rl!i  in  a  clear 
lif(ht  hy  means  of  his  elo(|Uenee.  it  will  take  with  it  throuf^di 
the  aires  llie  |)rais<'  of  (a/eio,  ami  in  limes  to  come  all  men 
will  exeei-atc  thy  ci-imc  ai-'aiiisi  him,  and  the  human  race  shall 
disaj)pi'ar  from  the  earth  hefon    ihe  name  of  < 'ieero  dies." 

320.  Philippi,  42  B.  C.  Aieanwhile  the  Iwo  repuhlican 
leadc-rs,  M.  Ihiilus  and  ('assiiis,  li.id  u  illidiau  n  !(•  l!u  Masl 
to  lake  |»o->(  - -.loii  of  iheir  provinces,  ami  were  excrtiirj;  ifiem- 
selves    to    iIh-   ulnuot    lo    prepar*-   for   ihe   stiiim^le     which    tln\' 

..I  ^ 


riiK  DK.vni  srurcdiJ-:  <»k  tiii:  ij'.imri.ic 


175 


knew  to  he  iiievilahle.  In  the  aulunm  of  iL*  they  had  hrought 
too;ether  at  IMiilippi  a  fonv  of  ninelcen  le,i:ions  (.f  h)ot  soldiers 
and  twenty  ihoUsan.l  horsemen.  Here  they  were  met  hy  the 
triumvirs  and  defeated,  lirutus  and  (\issius  l<K)k  their  own 
lives,  and  the  stru<;-o-lc  to  reestahlish  the  rci)uhlic  was  at  an  end. 
321.  The  Roman  World  Divided  between  Octavianus 
and  Antony.  In  the  division  of  territory  which  h)llowed  the 
victory,  Oclavius,   or   Octavianus   as    he    was   called   after   his 


A    HUMAN    flAl.I.l   V 


a(l,,|,|i,,n  hy  Caesar,  took  Italy  and  the  West,  Ant.uiy  the  East, 
with  Alexan.lna  as  his  rapilal.  he|»i.his  had  to  content  him- 
self with  Africa,  and  plays  heuccforlh  a  minor  role. 

322.  Actium,  31  B.  C.  The  c.>mpact  hetween  Octavianus 
;,,,.!  Anionv,  hroken  (.nly  hy  temporary  misunderstanding's, 
,.,„  f.a-  len  vears,  hut  tiu'  rivalry  hetween  the  two  rjien  was 
,,„,  intense  to  allow  the  arran.ovmcnt  to  he  permanent.  It 
was   h.'lieve<l    too   at    Home   that    Antony   and    ('leoi)atra   were 


176 


ROMAN    IlISTORV 


W 


planning  to  set  u|>  ;i  rival  power  in  \\w  East.  'Vhv  ^reat  naval 
Imttle  near  Acliiiin  w.is,  tlurcfnn\  a  .stru«;^le  ln'twccn  tlie  East 
and  the  West,  and  thr  viitorv  of  Octavianus  over  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  estahlished  once  for  all  tlu'  .su})remacy  of  the  West. 
323.  The  State  of  Society.  The  social  elianges  in  Italy 
which  came  about  in  tlic  period  [)recedin<:  the  revolution,  as 
we  have  noticed  in  a  prc\  >■»'!-  chapter,  l)ecain(>  still  more  marked 
in   the  years   which   interv(ned    hetween    the   (rracchi   and   the 


I'l   Ul^lVl.i     I',      \    I'OMCiaAN    VII, r, A 


battle  of  Actium.  The  middle  class  had  already  disappeared. 
Now  the  aristocracy  <vased  to  exist.  Vrw  of  the  old  families 
survived  the  civil  wars  and  proscription.  Society  was  made 
uj)  of  the  xt'vy  rich  and  the  very  poor.  The  ricli  men,  like 
Crassus,  had  made  their  fortunes  by  farmin<x  the  taxes,  by 
loaning  money  in  the  [irovinces,  and  by  trading  with  them, 
by  spe<'ulatin^  in  the  lands  of  the  |)i.;M  libed  and  the  bankrupt, 
and  by  cultivalln^^  flnir  Italian  eslales  with  slave  labor.  A 
great   chasm   yawned   between    iliem   and    the    slaves    or    the 


THE   DEATH   STRITGCJLE   OF    THE    REPUBLIC 


177 


needy  freemen  and  frcHnlmen  who  lived  upon  the  charity  of 
the  rich  or  tlie  lar«!;ess  of  the  slate.  To  work  with  the  hands 
was  dis^'raceful  for  a  freeman  because,  by  doin^^  so,  he  classetl 
himself  with  the  slaves  who  i)erforme(l  the  greater  part  of  the 
manual  labor.  This  was  one  of  the  evils  which  slavery  had 
broutijht  upon  Hom(\  Even  so  sensible  a  man  as  Cicero  says 
in  his  J)iitle.s\-  '*\Ve  are  to  acc<Mnit  as  unbecoming  and  mean  the 
iniim  of  all  hired  workmen,  whose  source  of  profit  is  not  their 
art  but  their  lal)or;  for  tlunr  very  wages  are  the  consideration  of 
their  servitudi\"  The  lower  classes  received  free  corn  and 
used  the  money  paid  them  for  their  votes  to  buy  the  other 
necessaries  of  life;  for  their  amusement  they  demanded  dra- 
matic festivals,  triumphal  processions,  and  gladiatorial  shows. 
The  rich  found  their  pleasure  in  spending  money.  They  built 
ma<Tnificent  villas  at  the  seashore,  and  laid  out  elaborate  parks. 
They  spent  fortunes  uj)on  furniture  and  jewels,  and  wmes 
and  delicacies  for  the  table  were  imix)rted  from  all  parts  of 
the  world.  It  was  inevitable  that  morality  should  be  at  a 
low  ebb  in  a  ])(M-io(l  when  money  was  the  sole  object  of  men'., 
desires.  TIk^  restraining  influence  which  religion  might  have 
e.xerted  was  lost,  because  tlic  lower  classes  were  plunged  in 
unbelief  or  superstition,  while  th(>  upj)er  classes  took  refuge 
in  some  form  of  Clreek  philosophy  which  did  little  to  raise 
them  out  of  the  slough  of  materialism. 

324.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Literaturs.  The  utter  absence 
of  epic  and  tragic  \)ov\v\  throughout  llie  century  from  Tiber- 
ius Gracchus  to  the  l»attle  of  Actium  is  significant  of  the  period. 
The  times  furnished  to  the  writer  neither  inspiration  nor  readers 
for  liis  W7)rks.  Even  the  better  types  of  comedy  languished. 
Plautus  and  IVrence  found  no  successors,  ;md  the  stage  was 
given  over  to  I'le  farce  and  the  mime.  Indeed,  even  tliese  lower 
forms  of  tlie  drama  found  it  hard  to  hold  their  place  in  popu- 
lar favor  i:i  c()m])etition  with  the  shows  in  the  anipliitheatre. 
Only  two  writers  have  the  flavor  of  the  olden  time,  Lucretius 
in  verse  and  V;.rro  in  j)rose. 

325.  Lucretius,  96-55  B.  C     Li  his  great  didactic  poem. 


170 


ifoM.w   ii!s'r<ii;v 


jjlaiHiin;;  to  set  ii[>  ;i  ri\:il  |»(.U(  r  in  ilic  Kast.  The  ^n-at  naval 
battle  near  Acliiiiii  \\a^,  tlicirluir,  a  .slni;4-,ul(>  Itctwccri  (lie  KiiM 
and  tlu'  Wot,  mihI  the  \i.|(.i"\  i»f  (  )'-la\  iaiiiis  over  Aritonv  and 
( 'le()I)atra  r>tal)li.slK'd  once  for  all  the  >n|)ri'nia<v  of  thr  West. 
323.  The  State  of  Society.     Tlic    sorial  diaii^^\s  in  Italy 

which  (•.(IMC  alxMit  in  tlic  period  jn-eccdin^j,-  the  rcvolntion,  as 
we  have  iioiiccd  in  a  j)n\  ions  cliaplcr,  hccanic  slill  more  niarkcil 
ill   the   veaiN    wliicli    intcrxrned   Ix'twccn    the   (Jracclii   and    the 


hattlr  of  Acliniii       The  middle    r|,i>,   had  aiivaih    disappc-irrd 
Xo'v   Uir  arisl(Mi;M  V   .caNcd   to  cxi^l.      Vrw    of  the  old   fannlic. 
snrvivcd    the   (•i\ii    u.n-^    and    [)rosci-i;»lion.     Society   was    made 
Uj*   of   the   verv    ri.  h    ;nid    t!ie  |Mrir.      'I'he    rich    men,    like 

Cra.xsus,  had  made  their  h»rtniies  hy  farmiti^::  tlie  taxes,  hy 
loanini;  nionev  in  the  jtrovin<(>,  and  hy  ira«lin;^  with  them, 
by  s|>eenlalin;^'  in  the  laii(l>  of  Hie  pro^erih;-  !  a  id  die  i.ankrnj)t, 
and  by  enltivalin::-  their  llaii.in  e^l.•|l(•s  with  >la\e  labor.  A 
great    chasm    yjiwtied    l)et\\een    them    and    the    da\«'>    or     the 


Tin:  i:i  \rii  srinca;!,!.  oi'   riii:  kkithlic 


17 


needy    freemen    :tnd    free<lmen    who    lived    upon    the   charity   of 
the  rich    oi-  the  laiv:e»  of  the  slate.      To   work  witii    tlie   liands 
was  diso-racefnl  h)r  a  fnnMnan  becanse,  by  doin^i'  so,  he  ciassi-d 
himself  with   the  slavivs  who  perh)rined   the  <;reater  part  of  the 
manna!    lal>or.     This    was  one   of  the  evils   which   slavery   had 
l>ron};hl   npon   H-omc.      Kven  so   si'nsil)le  a    man   as  Cicero  says 
in  his  Diiflcs:  "We  are  to  acc(Hmt  as  nnbecomin^  and  mean  the 
yiuns  of  all  hired  workmen,   whose  sonnn-  of  profit   is  not   their 
art  bnt   their  labor;  bir  their  very  wattes  are  the  consideralion  of 
their    servilnde."     dlie    lower    classes    received    free    corn    and 
nsed   the   money   paid    them    h>r   their  votes    to   bny   the  other 
necessaries  of    lif(>;  U)V  their   unnisement    they  demanded   dra- 
malic  b'stiv.'ils,   trinni|)iial    processions,   and  i^ladiatorial  shows. 
'IMie   ri*-h    h»nnd  their  pleasnre  in  sp(iidin*ni»')ney.     'i'hey  built 
ma^niificent  villas  at  the  seashore,  and  laid  out  (daborate  parks. 
Thev    spent     fortunes    upon    fnrnitnre   and     jeuels,    antl    wines 
and    delic.ieies  for  the  table    were  imported    from  all    l)arts  of 
t'le    world.       It   was    inevitable  th.at    morality   should     be   at    ii 
1;)W  ebb  in  a  peri(»d  when  money  was  the  sole  object  of  men'., 
desires.     The  restrainin<r  iidlnence   which   nTi<,non   mijj:ht   have 
exerted    w;is    lost,    becanse    the    lower   classes    Were    phuu^ed    in 
unbelief    or     ';  K-rstilion,    v.hilc    tlu^   upj)er   'lasses    took   refui!:e 
in    some    fornr  of    (ireek    jihilosophy    which    did    little    to    rai.se 
I'lem  out  of  the  sloU'.di  of  materialism. 

324.  Epic  and  Dramatic  Literaturs.  The  utter  absence 
of  <>pic  and  traji:ie  poetry  thron.'i:honl  !!ie  centnry  from  d'iber- 
ius  (ira'-chu>  to  the  batlle  of  .\elinm  i-  -iniifieant  of  the  period. 
The  times  fnrnish(>d  to  the  wril(>r  neither  iiispiralion  nor  readers 
lor  his  work>.  I'Acn  the  belter  types  of  come<ly  lai);;MUsheil. 
IMautr.s  and  Tcretict'  h)imd  no  snecessors.  and  the  sta:!;e  was 
.rive!)  over  to  tile  far-c  and  the  mime.  Indeed,  <'ven  these  hnver 
forms  of  tlie  drama  h>nnd  it  h:ird  to  hold  their  j.lace  in  popu- 
lar favor  i:i  comj»etition  with  the  shows  in  the  amphitheatre. 
Only  two  writers  have  the  flavor  of  the  old(-n  tiaie,  Lucretius 
in  vers«'  an  I  V.rirt  in  prose. 

325.  Lucretius,  98-55  B.  C     Li  his  o-n-.-it  didactic  |)oem, 


178 


ROM  AX    fITSTORV 


On  the  WorM^  LiicrctiiH  not  only  shows  tlit*  rou^h  llteniry  vij]jor 
ami  fire  and  tlie  niarnit'ii^ins  vxcn  of  an  Knnius,  hut  the  zeal 
and  the  dauntless  eoura^'e  of  a  Xaevius.  His  poem  centres 
about  two  themes:  "Fear  not  the  ^ods;  fear  not  death,"  but 
even  in  this  period  of  unbelief,  it  fell  upon  deaf  ears. 

326.  Varro,  116-27  B.  C.  Varro  wrote  books  enough 
for  a  library,  but  only  his  works  (Mi  (/ounfn/  Lifr,  and  parts  of 
his  Latin  Lanfjuafje  and  liis  Satires  are  extant.  Varro's  Safirct 
Moninisen  has  aplly  eliaiiieterized  as  "tlie  last  breath  of  tlu' 
g"od  spirit  of  the  old  liurgess-tinies." 

327.  Catullus,  87-54  B.  C.  The  temper  of  the  period 
finds  fit  expression  in  llit>  pomis  of  Catullus.  They  are  not 
laekinj;  in  foree,  in  wit,  and  in  sarcasm.  They  show  a  fine 
play  of  imagination  and  an  artistic  form  whieli  ])erh;ips  no 
other  Latin  poet  has  attained,  but  their  subjects  are  mainly 
drawn  from  the  little  incidents  <»f  ])olile  society,  and  the  verse 
is  that  of  the  decadent  (Ireek  jjcriod. 

328.  Oratory  Before  Cicero.  l*n»se  literature  fared  bet- 
ter in  this  century.  Oratory  in  particular  flourished.  Both 
Tiberius  and  Gains  Gracchus  were  elFective  si)eakers.  Mar- 
cus Antonius  and  I^ucius  Grassus,  at  the  begiiniing  of  the  first 
century,  and  Gicero's  contemporar}'  Ilortensius  were  also  dis- 
tinguislied  orators,  but  their  orations  lia\c  not  come  down  to 
us,  and  their  fame  was  eclipsed  l)y  that  of  Cicero,  Iiome's 
foremost  orator. 

329.  Cicero,  106-43  B.  C.  His  fifty-seven  extant  orations, 
some  of  them  written  for  delivery  in  courts  of  law  and  some 
eoinposed  for  pijlilical  [)urj»oses,  prove  him  to  have  been  a 
great  master  of  style,  perha[)s  the  greatest  Latin  stylist.  His 
activity  extended  to  almost  every  field  of  prose  literature,  to 
rhetoric,  i)hiloso[)hy,  law,  history,  uml  letter  writing.  In  writ- 
ing his  fonnal  treatises  he  drew  largely  from  Greek  sources, 
but  he  adapted  the  material  to  his  own  [juriioses  and  gave  it 
a  Roman  coloring.  His  Letters,  eight  lunivlred  and  more  of 
which  are  extant,  furnisli  us  with  an  admirable  picture  of  his 
life  and  times.     Cicero  was  a  ^jrolific  i)oet  too,  and,  if  we  may 


THE    DEATH    STRUGGLE    OE    THE    REPURLir 


179 


judge  from  the  verses  whicli  have  come  down  to  us,  he  was  a 
poet  of  no  mean  ability. 

330.  The  Historical  Works  of  Sallust,  Caesar,  and 
Nepos.  History,  whicli,  it  will  be  remembered,  began  with 
Cato  the  Censor,  takes  on  a  new  form  during  the  latter  part 
of  this  period.  Writers  no  longer  compose  narratives  cover- 
ing several  centuries  of  Roman  history,  w^eaving  together  legend 
and  fact  in  hoi)eless  confusion,  but  they  devote  themselves  to 
particular  episodes,  preferal)ly  of  their  own  times.  Of  this 
sort  are  Sallust's  War  ivith  Jugurtha,  his  Conspiracy  of  Cati- 
line, and  Caesar's  Commcniarics.  Similar  in  scope  also  were 
the  biographies  which  Cornelius  Xei)os  wrote. 

331.  Summary  Account  of  the  Last  Days  of  the  Repub- 
lic. The  revolution  against  senatorial  government,  which 
began  under  the  Gracchi,  reached  its  last  stage  in  the  struggle 
for  supreme  power  between  Caesar  and  Pompey,  supported 
by  the  senate.  Pompey's  cause  was  lost  on  the  field  of  Pharsa- 
lus,  and  Caesar,  by  his  victories  at  Thapsus  and  Munda,  made 
himself  master  of  the  Roman  world.  But  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  reorganization  of  the  government  he  was  assassinated, 
and  the  republicans  made  a  last  effort  to  ward  off  the  monarchy. 
They  were  defeated,  however,  at  Philipi)i  by  the  triumvirs 
Octavianus,  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  who  divided  the  world  be- 
tween them.  The  retirement  of  Lepidus  brought  Octavianus 
and  Antony  face  to  face,  just  as  Caesar  and  Pompey  had  been 
made  rivals  l)y  tlie  death  of  Crassus,  and  in  the  naval  battle 
of  Actium  Octaviiuius  made  good  his  claim  to  supreme  power. 
The  revolution  was  complete. 


THE    EST\lt!JSHMi:\r     (>[     THE    KMI'IKF, 
AM)    THE    JULIAN     EMI'KKoKS 

(27  n.(  .    \.  \K  (ill) 

Ho>\  Atu'ii  tu.,  sliiiriiii:  lii.s  junsir  with  the  smatr,  jdit  liitnsrif  at  the 
heatl  ol  lii<-  state  li<.\v  he  aiwJ  the  otli(r  Julian  imiH  ror..  ^(»vcnir<l  the 
world. 

332.  The  Restoration  of  Peace.  r)ii  Jamuiry  11,  29 
B.  c,  llu-  tein{)lc  (if  Jamis,  a-  liosc  (l(»(»rs  stood  open  in  linit' 
of  war,  was  closed  for  llic  Uiinl  time  in  all  lionian  history. 
This  syinholical  act  was  a  fitlinjj'  and  trnc  oincn  of  tlic  rctnrn 
of  |H'acc  and  prosju-rilv  fo  iionic,  foi-  Iv.chf  years  later  the 
|)oet  Horace  in  sin«.':ini!:  the  [)raises  of  ()eta\ian,  writes,  "Now 
faith  and  peace,  and  ^oocl  '•ej)nle,  niochsty  of  die  olden  time 
and  manly  worth,  so  Ion-  forgotten,  (hire  to  retnrn,  and  j)lenty 
apj)ears  to  view,  rich  with  her  o\rfh»win}.':  horn." 

333.  Augustus,    Master    of    the    State.    The     iirohlem 

whieli  Oetavian  set  himself  to  snhc  (.ii  hi^  retnrn  to  Home 
was  to  retain  hi.>  position  a>  nuc^tir  of  the  state,  \v\.  at  the 
same  time  to  keep  intact  tlie  old  forms  of  the  constitution.  He 
accomplislied  his  ol.je(t  hy  retaining  the  tribiinieian  powir 
for  life  and  hy  takin<^  tlie  proconsular  hujurium  for  ten  years, 
counting  from  27  e  c.  T\\v  i)roconsnlar  |)ower  ^^ave  him 
command  of  the  le^^ions,  and,  as  he  was  allowed  to  retain  the 
imperiitm  within  the  city,  his  {xjsition  id  home  was  efjuai  in 
rank  and  authority  to  that  of  tlio  consul.  The  trihunician 
power  nnthorized  him  f  >  summon  the  senate  or  the  |)oj)ular 
a--v...iMit-  ftir  the  l!;in>a'ti(tn  «»f  lnisines>,  and  to  veto  tlie 
action  of  almost  any  matristrate.  His  {»reeminence  was  ex- 
pressed in  tile  titles  of  Anirustus  an<l  prinrrps,  or  foremost 
citizen  of  the  commonwealth. 

334.  How  He  Kept  the  Old  Forms.     While  in  this  v  ay 

ISO 


THE    ESTABLISHMENT    OF   THE    EMPIRE 


181 


he  brought  the  real  power  into  his  own  hanils,  lie  retained 
the  old  oiHees  and  nnichinery  of  government,  and  kept  the 
lepubUcan  foiuis.  The  consuls,  praetors,  and  tribunes  were 
still  elected  as  in  the  past,  but  Augustus  adopted  the  practice 
of  recommending  certain  candidates  to  the  citizens,  and  his 
recommendation  insured  an  election.  The  popular  assem- 
!)lies  met  as  before,  l>ut  the  l)ills  submitted  to  them  were  drawn 
up  by  the  emperor,  and  the  candidates  bore  his  approval,  so 
that  popular  action  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  a  formal 
ratification  of  the  will  of  Augustus.  By  these  methods  Augus- 
tus attained  the  same  result  which  Julius  Caesar  had  reached, 
the  centralization  of  power  in  his  own  hands,  but  the  means 
which  he  employe<l  violated  the  old  traditions  less,  and  so  did 
not  excite  popular  opposition. 

335.  The  Senate  has  a  Share  in  the  Government.  In 
one  imi)()rtant  resi)ect  his  domestic  policy  dilfered  from  that 
of  Julius.  He  adopted  a  conciliatory  attitude  toward  the 
senate  and  invested  that  body  with  dignity  and  some  real  power. 
This  nominal  division  of  authority  between  the  emperor  and 
the  senate,  for  it  was  largely  nominal,  has  led  some  writers  to 
stvle  his  svstem  a  dvarchv,  /.  c,  a  joint  government  by  two 

powers. 

336.  Government  of  the  Provinces  Reorganized.    The 

independence  of  the  senate  in  this  dual  arrangement  is  mo.st 
apparent  in  the  management  of  the  provinces.  The  control 
of  Italy  and  of  the  settled  ])rovinees,  like  Asia  and  Macedonia, 
was  intrusted  to  the  senate  and  magistrates,  while  the  frontier 
districts,  where  troops  were  still  necessary,  were  assigned  to 
the  emperor.  To  no  part  of  the  Roman  world  did  the  reforms 
of  Augustus  bring  greater  relief  than  to  districts  outside  of 
Italy.  The  governors  of  imperial  provinces  were  appointed 
by  him  on  the  score  of  fitness  and  lionesty.  They  were  directly 
responsible  to  him,  and  held  office  for  reasonably  long  terms, 
so  that  they  became  familiar  with  their  duties  and  with  the 
needs  of  their  provinces.  Even  over  the  senatorial  prov- 
inces Augiistus  exereist  <l  some  suj)ervision,  and  the  excellence 


CIIAI»'1^ER  XI 

THE    ESI  AmJSHMFA'T    OF  THE    EMIMKi:, 
AM)   THE    JILIW    EMl'EUUKS 

(27  n. '.    V.  i>.  (i'J) 

H(Mv    AuL'ii;  I  iu\  sluiriiir  liis  ^>o^^tT  with  the  scnat(.  put    hiiiisflf  at   the 
htii'l   </!    li.f  st;il(       liou     lif    and   (he  oi  h<  r    Juhuii  t'iii|H  r  »v»riu"l   tht; 

world. 

332.  The  Restoration  of  Peace.  On  January  11,  29 
B.  C,  llu'  lcnij)l('  of  -lanus,  whose  doors  stood  open  in  time 
of  war,  was  closed  for  the  third  time  in  all  l^omaii  history. 
This  symholieal  act  was  a  fitlinjr  and  true  omen  of  the  return 
of  peace  and  prosperity  to  Konie,  lor  tv/el\c  years  later  the 
poet  Horace  in  sinj.^ini!:  tlie  praises  of  Oetavian,  writes,  "Now 
faith  and  peace,  and  ^'ood  repute,  modesty  of  the  olden  time 
and  numly  worth,  s(»  Ion"  forj^otten,  dare  to  return,  and  pliiity 
up[)ears  to  view,  rich  with  her  o'erllowint,^  horn." 

333.  Augustus,  Master  of  tlie  State.  TIk-  problem 
which  Oetavian  set  himself  to  solve  on  his  return  to  Home 
was  to  retain  liis  position  as  master  of  the  -tate,  yet  at  the 
same  time  to  keej)  intact  t!ie  old  forms  of  tlie  constitution.  He 
accom])lished  his  ol)iect  hy  retaining  the  trihunician  power 
for  life  and  hy  takinj.i"  the  proconsular  ini  jxriinii  for  ten  years, 
eountin^^  from  27  h.  c  The  proconsular  power  ^ave  liim 
command  of  the  legion^,  and,  as  he  was  allowed  to  retain  the 
impcriuni  within  tlie  city,  his  position  at  home  was  ecpud  in 
rank  and  authority  to  tliat  of  tlu»  eonsuL  The  trihunician 
power  authorized  him  t)  summon  the  senate  or  the  popular 
assemhlies  for  tlie  transaction  of  husiness,  and  to  veto  tlie 
action  of  almost  any  ma}.!,i>tratc.  II is  preeminence  w  jis  ex- 
pressed in  the  titles  of  Au<tustus  and  jn'tnccps,  or  foremost 
citizen  of  the  commonwcilth. 

334.  How  He  Kept  the  Old  Forms.    While  in  this  way 

180 


THE   ESTABLISHMENT    OF   THE   E.Mrn;E 


IM 


he  brought  the  real  power  into  his  own  liaiids,  he  retaiiitnl 
the  old  otiiees  and  machinery  of  government,  and  ke|»i  the 
lepuhliean  forius.  The  (on>uls.  |)raetors,  and  trihuncs  were 
still  elected  as  in  the  j»ast,  hut  .\ugu>tu>  aiie»i»ted  the  practice 
of  recommending  certain  candidates  to  the  citizens,  ami  hi.s 
recommendation  insured  an  election.  The  |>o|mlar  msseni- 
l)lies  met  as  before  f)Ut  the  bills  submitted  to  them  were  drawn 
up  by  the  emperor  nnd  the  «aii<lidatc.  tu^n-  h\<  approval,  .mi 
that  popular  action  atnounted  to  nolhinii  imnv  than  II  formal 
ratification  of  the  will  of  Augustus.  Hy  these  methiMls  Auf^iis- 
tus  attained  the  same  result  which  .lulius  Caesar  hail  rearhfil, 
the  centralization  of  pov.cr  in  his  own  !ianils»  Inil  flic  ineaii.s 
which  he  employc<l  violate.l  the  old  traditii>fv^  ^'-^  nuf  mt  4i4 
not  excite  popular  op|)osition. 

335.  The  Senate  has  a  Share  in  the  Government.  In 
one  important  respect  his  domestic  policy  dilfered  frfiiii  lliaf 
of  Julius.  H(^  ado))t(<l  a  (rmciliatory  attitude  toward  tin- 
senate  and  investt-d  th;it  b(.dv  with  .lignlf  «'».?  «=nmc  real  p^wrr 
This  nominal  division  of  autliority  lH!tween  me  emperor  aii-l 
the  senate,  for  it  was  largely  nominal,  lias  kil  siifiic  writers  to 
style  his  system  a  dvarcliv,  a  joint  jrovcTiiment  by  two 

powers. 

336.  Government  of  the  Provinces  Reorganized      Thr 


independence  of  the  s  nate  in  this  dual  arraugeniriit  i.^  a 
apparent  in  the  management  of  the  provinces.  The  cxmlrfii 
of  Italy  and  of  the  settled  provinces,  like  A.sia  ami  Matwlimiii, 
was  intrusted  t*.  [hr  <ru:iU^  :nid  mainstrates.  while  the  fniiilier 
.listricts,  where  tro..p^  -  -  -.11  ih-  ..,,,  were  asisigned  t.. 
the  emperor.  To  no  part  (»f  the  Roman  world  did  tlic  refonu- 
of  Augustus  bring  greater  relief  than  to  districts  outside  «)f 
Italy.  The  governors  of  imperial  provincTS  wen:  a|»i)oiiiii!iI 
by  him  on  the  scon-  of  fitness  and  honesty.  They  wcr<!  directly 
responsible  to  him,  and  held  oflic-c  fcir  rejisoiialily  long  tcnus. 
so  tliat  they  became  familiar  wilii  their  diHics  and  with  the 
n«MHls  of  their  |)n»vin<'<'S.  Even  over  th**  senatorial  prfiv- 
inces  Augustus  exerci  <  d    onu-  sniMTvisioii.  and  tlir  ciivllefif^ 


182 


ROM  AX    HISTORY 


of  tilt'  j^oveniiiKMit  in  the  iin|)('rial  j)r()vin((\s  could  not  fail  to 
exert  a  beneficial  inflnenee  over  tliosc  not  direetlv  under  his 

ft.'' 

control.  From  tliis  time  on  ;i  ;id\<riior  received  a  fixed  salary 
and  was  no  longer  o])li»^ed  to  rely  upon  extortion  in  seekinj]^  a 
reasonal)le  return  for  his  scrNi* cs,  and  in  case  he  did  practice 
extortion,  an  aj)peal  could  l)e  taken  to  the  emperor  with  assur- 
ance of  redress. 

337.  Augustus  Improves  Local  Conditions.  Augustus 
did  a  great  deal  also  to  improve  local  conditions  in  the  prov- 
inces. In  Asia,  for  instance,  lie  made  ^rrants  of  inonev  t<» 
various  towns,  he  improved  tlie  system  of  taxation,  constructed 
pu})lic  works  and  opened  u})  tlie  country  by  building  roads. 
He  brouglit  the  entire  (inpire  also  into  closer  relations  with 
Rome  by  estal)lisliing  relay  st.iiions  ;dong  the  great  military 
roads  at  wliich  liorses  and  vehicles  were  kept  to  forward  oflicial 
correspondence.  These  improvements  W(^rc  probablv  all  sn*"-- 
gested  to  him  by  his  |)ers«)nal  ol»ser\  .jtion,  for  during  his  reign 
he  is  said  to  have  visite<l  every  province  but  Sardinia  and 
Africa. 

338.  The  Frontier.  One  impoilant  feature  of  liis  forei*ni 
policy  was  to  establish  a  natural  and  secure  frontier.  The 
Euphrates  served  tliis  purpose  t.)  the  east.  '1\)  the  south  the 
great  desert  of  Africa  formed  a  natural  boundary,  and  made 
the  provinces  in  that  (piarter  of  the  world  safe,  (  x. cpt  from  the 
occasional  incursi  )ns  of  nonuid  tribes.  On  the  west  was  the 
Atlantic,  and  the  Rhine  and  Danube  nuirked  the  northern 
frontier. 

339.  Defeat  of  Varus  in  A.  D.  9.  The  most  imi)()rtant 
camjiaigns  carried  on  during  tlic  reign  of  Augustus  were  those 
against  the  CJermans.  Tiberius  and  Drusus,  his  stejKsons, 
had  reduced  these  people  to  snlvipetion,  but  thev  rose  in  rebellion 
against  the  Romans  undvi  a  native  priru-e,  Arminius,  and, 
falling  on  the  three  legions  of  Varus,  the  Roman  general,  in  the 
Teutol)erg  Forest,  destroyed  them  com|)letely.  The  Ronum 
standards  were  captured,  and  Varus  took  his  own  life  Tlie 
news  of  die  disaster  and   tlie  disgrace  a})pall(-d  the  peoj)le  at 


THE    E8TA  HUSH  MEM    -•!     TIIK    FMriKI 


Rome,  and  so  affected  .Xugustns,  it  is  said,  that  hr  \vm  lieanl  Ui 
cry  out  in  the  night:  "Varus,  Varus,  give  inv  back  my  Irgiiiiw.** 

340.  The  City  of  Rome  under  the  Republic.  Wiih  till 
this  acti vit v  abroad  he  did  not  neglect  Uouie  antl  I  tal v.  .Mniiiiii- 
.sen  has  descril)ed  the  city  of  Ronn:  under  the  re[»ublii'  in  the 
following  graj»hic  wortls:  "The  streets  a.Hceiided  ami  desecmleil 
narrow  and  angular,  ami  were  wretchrdly  kepi;  the  f(M»tpat!»s 
were  small  and  ill  paved.  The  ordinary  liousf'-:  ..  built  ... 
bricks  negligently  and  t«»  a  gi<idy  lu-ight,  mostly  i»y  .sjHJtrulative 
builders.  Like  isolated  islands  amidst  this  .sea  <if  UTelched 
buildings  were  .seen  the  splendid  palaces  cif  the  rieli,  iR'siile 
wlio.se  marble  pillars  and  (Ireek  statues  the  dc*ejiyiiig  leiilples, 
with  their  images  of  the  god>  >till  in  great  piiil  rarvri!  of  wtMnj 
made  a  melancholy  figure.  A  police  .sujHTvi.sioii  of  streel.s,  of 
river-banks,  of  fires,  or  of  buildings  was  almost  iiiih(*ani  of." 

341.  How  Augustus  Improved  It.  .lurnis  Caesar  iiiade 
some  progress  in  remedying  this  slate  of  nlfnirs  .-nid  in  !»c:tiitify- 
ing  the  city,  but  it  was  left  to  his  Mie<e.>><u  u*  <  arr;  '  plans 
to  completion.  Agripi)a,  tlie  minister  of  Augustus,  rciiuilt  tin- 
a(jueducts,  reorganized  the  water  dc[»arlmerit,  ami  conslnicled 
a  number  of  new  l)aths,  liridges,  and  temples,  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  work  was  carried  oiil  under  the  ilirect  sufiervisioii 
of  the  emperor.  As  he  ju'oudly  writes  in  the  memtirial  of 
his  life  which  the  inscriljcd  rec(»rd  found  mt  Ancyra  in  .\sia 
Minor,  and  known  as  the  maninnenfum  Annjranum,  lias 
preserved  to  us:  "The  Capitolimn  and  the  Fompeian  llieatn 
both  very  costly  works—T  restored.  .  .  .  Water-conduits  in 
numy  places  that  were  decaying  with  age  1  re|)aired.  .  .  .  Th* 
Forum  lulium  and  the  basilica,  which  was  between  the  lenii>le 
of  Castor  and  the  temple  of  Saturn,  works  lieguii  and  far  ad- 
vanced by  my  father,  I  ccmipleted.  .  .  .  In  my  sixth  consulshii*. 
I  repaired  eighty-two  tenii)les  (»f  the  gods.  ...  On  ground  be- 
longing to  myself  I  built  a  temple  t(»  Mars  Ullor  and  the  Forum 
.Vugustum,  witli  money  arising  fn»m  the  mic  <»f  the  sjioils  of 
war;"  and  so  thc«  record  runs  through  a  list  which  might  well 
justify  him  in  boasting  that  "he  found  Rome  brick  and  left  it 


184 


HOMW     msTolCY 


marble."  To  protect  the  lives  and  property  of  the  citizens  he 
established  a  fire  and  poHcc  dt[)urtnient,  numbering  seven  or 
eight  thousand  men,  and  reorganized  the  system  of  municipal 
administration. 

342.  Improvements  in  Italy.  Improvements  similar  to 
tliese  in  Rome  were  made  throughout  Italy.  The  via  Fhuninia, 
the  great  liighway  wliicli  r;in  from  Rome  to  Ariminum,  was 
repaved,  guards  were  stationed  at  intervals  to  protect  travelers, 
and  military  colonies  were  planted  along  its  course. 

343.  Social  Reforms  of  Augustus.  It  is  more  difficult 
to  change  social  conditions  than  material  ones.  Yet  Augustus 
bravely  attacked  this  jirobleni  too.  He  tried  to  check  extrava- 
gance l)y  enacting  sumptuary  laws  which  limited  the  amount  to 
be  spent  for  a  dinner  on  ordinary  days  and  on  festivals.  He 
tried  to  restore- the  old-time  integrity  of  family  life,  and  to 
prevent  the  native  stock  from  dying  out,  by  laying  restrictions 
upon  divorce,  l)y  putting  the  childless  and  the  unnuirried  at  a 
disadvantage  in  the  matter  of  receiving  legacies  and  otherwise, 
and  by  granting  fav(jrs  to  men  with  families.  His  legislation 
upon  these  j>oin*s,  however,  did  little  to  remedy  the  evils  at 
which  it  was  directed.  He  w  as  more  successful  in  restoring  the 
Ronum  religion  to  its  old  position  of  dignity.  He  did  this  by 
rebuilding  the  temi)les,  l)y  celebrating  religious  festivals  with 
great  pomp,  and  by  taking  certain  priestly  oilices  himself,  like  the 
position  of  |)ontifex  maximus,  or  chief  l)riest.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  of  the  social  changes  which  he  elfected  consisted 
in  establishing  a  series  of  new  sot  ial  classes.  They  were  three 
in  number:  The  senators,  who  as  ex-magistrates  owed  their 
position  to  his  recommendation;  the  knights,  whose  social  and 
political  standing  he  definitely  fixed;  and  a  local  aristocracy, 
known  as  the  Aug  upstairs  ^  and  made  uj)  of  rich  freedmen  in  the 
little  towns,  who  in  return  for  contributing  to  })ublic  purposes 
enjoyed  certain  privileges.  The  interests  of  these  three  classes 
were  those  of  the  ( inperor,  and  their  support  did  much  to 
strengthen  his  iK)sition. 

344.  The  Results  of  his  Work.     If  a  balance-sheet  of  the 


\  i 


y^fi 


AUOrSTUS 


184 


KoMw    ms'foin' 


iiuirl)le."  To  i)n)t(rt  \hv  ]\\v>  aiul  projx  rty  of  [Uv  citi/A'iis  \iv 
csttihlislRMl  a  fill'  and  polite  department,  nnni})ering  seven  or 
ei^lit  thousand  inen,  and  reorj.^ani/ed  tlie  system  of  niunieipul 
administration. 

342.  Improvements  in  Italy.  Improvements  similar  to 
these  in  Rome  wen-  made  throuj^diout  Italy.  The  via  Flaminia, 
tlie  great  hi*^Ii\vay  which  ran  from  Rome  to  Arimiiium,  was 
repaved,  guards  were  stationed  at  intervals  to  proleet  travelers, 
and  military  colonies  were  |)lanted  along  its  eourse. 

343.  Social  Reforms  of  Augustus.  It  is  more  diflieult 
to  ehange  social  conditions  than  material  ones.  Yet  Augustus 
bravely  attacked  Uiis  prohli'm  too.  lie  tried  to  cheek  extrava- 
gance !)y  enacting  sumptuary  laws  which  limited  the  amount  to 
be  spent  for  a  dinntr  on  ordinary  days  and  on  festivals,  lie 
tried  to  restore  the  tjld-tinie  integrity  of  family  life,  and  to 
prevent  the  native  slock  from  dying  out,  by  laying  restrictions 
upon  divorce,  by  putting  the  childless  and  the  unmarried  at  a 
disadvantage  in  the  mattt'r  of  recening  legacies  and  otherwise, 
and  by  granting  favors  to  men  with  families.  His  legislation 
upon  these  points,  however,  did  little  to  remedy  the  evils  at 
wliieh  it  was  directed.  He  was  more  suci cssful  in  restoring  the 
Roman  religion  to  its  old  position  of  dignity.  He  did  this  by 
rebuilding  the  temple^,  by  ii  lebrating  religious  festivals  with 
great  j)omp,  and  by  taking  certain  priestly  ollices  himself,  like  the 
jxfsitioii  of  ]>ontil*e\  maximus,  or  chief  priest.  ( )ne  of  the  most 
interesting  of  tin-  social  ehan^ns  which  he  eU'ected  consisted 
in  establishing  a  series  of  new  social  elas.ses.  They  were  three 
in  number:  The  senators,  who  as  ex-magistrates  owed  their 
position  to  his  recomnK-ndatioii;  tlu-  knights,  whose  social  and 
politieal  standing  he  (kdinitely  fixed;  and  a  local  aristocracy, 
known  as  the  Auf/ii.sfulc.s,  and  made  u]»  of  rich  freedmen  in  the 
little  towns,  who  in  return  for  contributing  to  public  puri)oses 
enjoyed  certain  privileges.  The  interests  of  these  three  classes 
were  those  of  the  emj)eror,  and  their  support  did  much  to 
strengthen  his  position. 

344.  The  Results  of  his  Work.     If  a  balance-sheet  of  the 


'I  * 

.irt 


AUGt'STUS 


THE    ESTABLISHMENT    OF   THE    EAH'HIE 


185 


i 


public  led<^cr  were  struck  it  would  show  ji  profit  and  a  loss. 
On  the  credit  side  would  stand  the  restoration  of  law  and  order, 
the  betterment  of  material,  and  to  some  extent,  of  social  condi- 
tions, and  in  particular  a  great  improvement  in  the  state  of  the 
provinces.  On  the  debit  side  stands  the  permanent  loss  of  self- 
government,  and  of  the  broadening  and  educative  influence 
which  partici[)ation  in  the  management  of  public  affairs  exerts 
upon  a  j)eople. 

345.  The  Character  of  Augustus.    The  likenesses  which 

we  have  of  Augustus  reveal  clearly  enough  the  essential  traits 
of  his  character.  The  clearly-marked  features,  the  strong 
mouth,  and  the  compact,  well-knit  figure  all  point  to  firmness 
of  i)urpose  and  clearness  of  conce|)ti()n.  They  indicate  a  man 
of  balance  and  self-restraint,  and  such  a  man  he  proved  himself 
to  be,  both  in  his  j)ublic  and  [)rivate  life.  They  suggest  also  a 
man  of  refined  tastes,  and  the  encouragement  which  he  gave  to 
art  and  literature  would  seem  to  bear  out  this  interpretation 
of  his  [)hysiognomy. 

346.  Literature  under  Augustus;  Vergil,  70  - 19  B.  C.    In 

fostering  of  art  and  literature  he  was  a])ly  seconded  by  Agri[)pa. 
hw  commissioner  of  public  works,  who  did  so  nmch  to  beautify 
Rome,  by  Maecenas  his  prime  minister,  who  was  the  patron  of 
Horace,  and  by  Pollio  the  friend  of  Vergil,  and  the  founder  of 
the  first  i)ublic  library  in  Rome.  To  Pollio,  Vergil  owed  his  intro- 
duction to  Augustus,  from  whom  he  ultimately  received  com- 
pensation for  the  farm  which  he  had  owned  near  his  birthplace, 
Mantua,  but  which  the  veterans  had  confiscated,  and  in  grateful 
recoo-nition  of  his  kindness  Pollio  is  made  the  chief  object  of  his 
praise  in  the  Bucolics,  or  j)astoral  poems  which  he  composed  be- 
tw^een  41  and  39  b.  c.  About  ten  years  later  Vergil's  second 
great  work,  i\i^  Georgics,  appeared.  The  first  book  of  the  Gcur- 
gics  treats  of  farming,  the  second  of  the  planting  of  trees,  the 
third  of  the  care  of  cattle,  and  the  fourth  of  bees.  The  subject  of 
the  poem  was  suggested  to  the  poet  by  IMaecenas,  who  reflected 
the  wishes  of  the  emperor  in  his  desire  to  have  the  Roman  people 
return  to  the  country,  and  take  up  farming  again.     The  Aeneid 


186 


ROMAN    MI.STOI{Y 


was  not  puMished  until  afti-r  tlir  |>(.rt's  death.  It  is  the  story 
of  Aeneas  and  the  be^riiinin^^s  <.f  Hofikiii  liistorv,  which  in  a 
ditierent  form  had  been  tohi  in  the  epies  oi"  Naeviiis  and  Knnius. 
347.  Horace,  65-8  B.  C.  Tlie  verses  in  Vergil's  friend 
Horace  are  still  more  closely  connected  with  the  names  of 
Augustus  and  Maecenas,  because  many  of  his  i)oenis  are  ad- 
dressed to  these  two  men,  or  celebrate  their  achievements.  In 
his  earliest  compositions,  the  Saflrcs,  he  discusses  the  different 
phases  of  everyda\-  life,  lau»:liin«r  at  its  vices  and  foibles. 
In  makin*,'  everyday  life  his  tiieme  lie  follows  Lucilius,  but  his 
work  is  more  finished  than  that  of  his  predecessor,  and  is  free 
from  the  personalities  and  the  bilin<:  satire  which  characterized 
the  compositions  of  Lucilius.     To  the  earlier  vears  of  his  liter- 

I'' 

ary  life  belong  also  the  Kjjodcs.  His  most  finished  ])roductions 
are  his  Odes  and  Epl^ths.  In  the  last-mentioned  poems  he 
returns  to  his  early  study  of  the  life  about  him.  It  is  his  four 
books  of  lyrical  poems,  however,  which  have  been  most  read  by 
posterity,  and  upon  them  Horace  himself  wished  his  claim  to 
inunortality  to  rest. 

348.  Tibullus,  54-19  B.  C;  Propertius,  49-15  B.  C; 
Ovid,  43  B.  C-A.  D.  18.  Poetry  in  which  the  writer  turns 
his  thoughts  in  U[)on  himself  is  characteristic  (jf  the  period.  To 
this  class  belong  the  elegies  of  Tibullus,  rroi)ertius,  and  Ovid. 
Their  poems  are  called  elegies  not  because  they  were  poems  of 
lamentation,  but  because  the  \{rscs  in  them  were  alternatelv 
dactyhc  liexanicters  and  dactvlic  pentameters,  and  the  term 
elegy  was  applied  to  composition.^  of  this  metrical  form.  Ovid 
was  a  very  prolific  writer,  and  left  a  great  body  of  poetry 
behind  him.  His  best  known  works  are  ilmWIcfamorphoses 
and  the  Fasti.  The  former  deals  with  the  stories  of  Greek 
mythology.  The  latter  is  a  Roman  calendar  of  days,  into 
which  are  interw^oven  legends  comiected  with  the  various 
holidays. 

349.  Livy,  59  B.  C.-A.  D.  17.  Livy's  great  Instory  of 
Rome  was  probably  planned  to  contain  one  hundred  and  fifty 
books.     Of  these  one  hundred  and  forty-two  were  comr)leted. 


THE  estahlisiimext  of  the  empire 


187 


and  brought  the  narrative  down  from  the  founding  of  the  city 
to  9  B.  c.  Only  thirty-five  of  tliese  l)ooks,  with  very  brief 
epitomes  of  most  of  the  others,  are  extant.  Livy  was  not  an 
historical  critic,  and  his  purpose  was  not  so  much  to  get  at  the 
exact  truth  in  doubtful  matters  as  to  |)resent  in  a  graphic  form 
the  story  of  Rome  and  of  the  exploits  of  her  great  men.  In  this 
he  has  succeeded  admirably. 

350.  The  Question  of  the  Succession.  Augustus  had 
found  no  more  difHcult  (juestion  to  settle  thaa  that  of  the  suc- 
cession. His  own  powers  had  been  given  to  him  for  a  fixed 
term  of  years  or  for  life.  ConsiMpiently  Ik^  could  not  transmit 
them  to  any  one  else  at  his  death.  He  could,  however,  during 
his  own  lifetime  inv(^'«5t  the  man  of  liis  choice  with  powers  inde- 
pendent of  liis  own  and  tlnis  do  much  tow%'ird  securing  the  suc- 
cession for  liim.  This  was  the  j)lan  w^hich  he  adoj)ted.  After 
the  death  of  liis  nej)hew  Marcellus  and  his  tw^o  grandsons,  Gaius 
and  Lucius  Caesar,  he  turned  to  liis  stepson  l^iberius,  and  by 
adopting  him  and  by  conferring  u|)on  him  the  tribunician  and 
proconsular  powers,  invested  him  with  an  independent  authority 
which  of  course  did  not  laj)se  at  his  own  death  in  a.  d.  1  1. 

351.  The  Character  of  Tiberius.  Augustus  could  scarcely 
have  chosen  a  successor  of  greater  promise.  Tiberius  was  fifty- 
six  years  old  when  his  predecessor  die«l,  and  from  his  youth  on 
he  had  been  in  the  service  of  the  state.  He  had  been  consul  and 
had  held  the  i)rocoM,sular  and  tribunician  power  His  bravery, 
•ibility,  and  success  as  a  military  leader  had  won  him  the  implicit 
confidence  of  the  soldiers.  It  is  the  Tibc^rius  of  this  period^ 
strong,  proud,  conscientious,  and  able,  who  is  })ainte(I  by  Velleius 
Patcrculus,  the  contemporary  historian  who  served  on  his  staff  in 
Pannonia.  A  far  different  picture  is  that  which  we  have  from 
the  pen  of  Tacitus,  a  writer  of  a  later  date.  In  point  of  fact 
there  were  two  sides  to  his  character,  and  tlie  l)etter  phase  of  it 
showed  out  more  clearly  in  his  earlier  life  and  in  the  early  part  of 
his  reign. 

352.  His  Mistrust  and  its  Effects.  He  was  naturally  very 
res(^rvcd  and  the  intention  which  Augustus  cherished  for  many 


188 


llOMA.\     HISTORY 


years  of  makiuix  some  one  else  tluui  iiiiiiseLf  liis  lu'ir  and  siieeessor 
developed  this  t|uality  into  a  distrust  of  liiinsril'  and  a  snspieion 
of  others.  This  |>ievi  nlcd  him  from  making  Inc  nsc  of  others  in 
administerini«;  public  alfairs,  as  Aujxustus  had  ilone.  Conse- 
quently the  l)urden  of  state  fell  upon  him  alone  during  the  early 
years  of  his  reign. 

353.  The  Rise  of  Sejanus.  He  carried  it  well,  !)ut  the  strain 
was  too  great,  and  when  the  clever  and  unseru|)ulous  xVelius 
Sejanus  had  shown  himself  able  to  relieve  him,  Tiberius  gave 
him  alone  tlie  confidence  which  lie  had  refused  to  put  in  others, 
and  withdrew  from  a  direct  parti(  ipalion  in  public  affairs,  be- 
taking himself  finally  to  the  island  of  (Japri,  where  he  spent  the 
rest  of  his  life.  This  was  what  Sejanus  desired.  He  now  had 
a  free  liand  to  })ut  out  of  the  way  those  who  opposed  him  and 
those  wlio  stood  l)et\veen  liim  and  the  object  of  his  great  ambition, 
the  succession  to  tlie  throne.  Drusus,  the  ordy  s(m  of  Tiberius, 
was  jjoisoned.  Agrippina,  the  widow  of  Tibcrius's  nci)hew  Ger- 
manieus,  and  h(;r  son  Xcro  were  banished,  and  (iains,  her  second 
son,  was  marked  for  attack. 

354.  Delation.  Against  victims  of  less  inijxjrtancc.'  Sejanus 
used  the  i)rofessional  informer,  d'he  Romans  had  no  j)ublie 
prosecutor,  l)nt  evidence  w.is  eolle<t<'d  and  charges  were  brought 
by  |>rivate  citizens.  ('icen>  won  his  hrst  brilliant  sn<'cess  at  tlu! 
bar  in  tliis  way  by  liis  prosecution  of  Verres,  the  governor  of 
Sicily.  This  [)ra(tice  took  on  a  vicious  form  under  the  empire, 
I'or  men  known  as//r////r>/v.v  made  a  prohssion  of  lodging  informa- 
tion against  others  for  the  sake  of  sliaring  in  the  fines  which  would 
be  imposed  in  case  of  conviction.  These  jjrofessional  informers 
Sejanus,  and  Tiberius,  also,  for  that  matter,  freely  used  against 
those  whom  they  suspected. 

355.  The  Last  Days  of  Tiberius.  The  suspicions  of  Tiberius 
were  at  last  aroused,  and,  sending  a  trusty  agent  to  Rome,  he 
secured  the  condemnation  and  death  of  his  former  favorite. 
After  the  death  of  Sejanus  tlie  mistrust  of  Tiberius  redoubled  and 
his  cruelty  knew  no  limit.  He  ent  liimself  off  still  more  from  the 
outside  W(»rld  and  died  in  his  inland  h(nne  in  \.  d.  ;>7. 


T51E    ESTABLISHMENT   OF   THE    EMPIRE 


189 


356.  The  Empire  Under  Tiberius.  It  is  pleasant  to  turn 
from  this  side  of  the  life  of  Tiberius  t(j  his  government  of  the 
provinces,  and  to  his  administration  of  financial  affairs.  He 
practiced  economy  himself  and  insisted  uikju  it  in  the  case  of  his 
subordinates,  and  yet  he  was  liberal  when  public  interests  de- 
manded it.  In  the  provinces  lie  held  governors  strictly  to  their 
duties,  and  punished  vigorously  those  who  were  guilty  of  injustice 
or  extortion.  In  Italy  lie  helped  to  develoi>  agriculture,  and  pro- 
moted the  .security  of  the  country  districts.  The  most  important 
constitutional  change  wliich  lie  made  was  to  transfer  the  elections 
from  the  popular  asseml)lies  to  tlie  senate.  This  change  was  of 
cour.se  only  a  formal  one,  because  popular  elections  had  already 
lost  their  meaning. 

357.  Gaius,  Nicknamed  Caligula,  A.  D.  37-41.  Upon 
the  death  of  Tiberius,  Gaius  Caesar,  the  son  of  (rermanicus,  the 
adopted  son  of  Tiberius,  was  proclaimed  emperor  by  tlie  senate. 
He  is  commonly  known  l)y  the  pet  name  "rali;';ula"  ("litUe  boot") 
which  the  .soldiers  gave  him  when  he  was  a  boy  with  his  father  in 
Germany.  Throughout  his  reign  he  was  the  victim  of  caprice, 
and  represented  absolutism  in  its  (Tudest  form.  In  an  incredil)ly 
short  time  he  had  spent  upon  extravagant  projects  of  all  sorts  the 
sum  of  seven  hundred  million  .sesterces,  or  about  $25,000,000, 
which  his  economical  predecessor  had  saved,  and  proceeded  to 
meet  the  resulting  deficit  by  confiscaiion  and  o])pressive  taxation. 
The  wrath  of  the  people  groaning  under  this  tyrannous  govern- 
ment found  expression  in  one  c()ns[)iracy  after  another  until 
finally  Caligula  was  murdered  by  tlie  officers  of  his  own  guard. 

358.  The  Personal  Appearance  of  Claudius.  He  was 
succeeded  by  his  uncle  Tiberius  Claudius  Caesar.  Of  the  new 
emperor  his  biographer  Suetonius  sjiys:  "Either  standing  or 
sitting,  but  especially  when  he  lay  aslec{),  Claudius  had  a  majestic 
and  graceful  appearance,  for  he  was  tall  but  not  slender  ....  But 
his  knees  were  feel)le  and  failed  him  in  walking,  so  that  his  gait 
was  ungainly  on  state  occasions,  as  well  as  wIumi  lie  was  taking 
exercise  ....  He  stammered,  too,  in  his  speech,  and  had  a  tremu- 
lous motion  of  the  head  at  all  times,  but  especially  when  he  was 


190 


HUM  AN     lilSTOKY 


eiiKJiij^tMl  in  any  l)llsin(^s,  how.  ^rr  trifliii<r  ....  His  mother  An- 
toiiia  (jfk'ii  riiWv.d  liiiii  'an  nii|nrlect  man  whom  nature  had  be- 
gun but  had  not  finished.'  Ami  when  slie  wished  to  upbraid 
any  one  with  chilhiess,  sli.  uouM  say.  'lii^  is  a  *,a-eatcr  fool  than 
my  son  Claudius/" 

359.  How  He  was  made  Emperor.  It  was  this  man  whom 
the  soldiers  found  in  a  balcony  in  tlie  j>ahiee  hiding  behind  the 
han<,qn^js  of  the  door.  Half  in  nioekerv  and  half  seriously  they 
drai^wed  him  out,  saluted  liim  as  enipercjr,  and  forced  the  reluctant 
seiuite  to  recognize  liim. 

360.  His  Distrust  of  Himself  and  its  Effects.  The  distrust 
which  Claudius  felt  of  himself  and  the  interest  which  he  had 
always  sliown  in  anticjuariaii  pursuits  determine  in  large  measure 
the  character  of  his  reign.  His  lack  of  .self-confidence  made  him 
lean  helples.sly  ofi  others,  and  as  a  result  he  was  easily  managed 
by  the  members  of  his  household,  and  the  history  of  the  Court 
during  his  reign  is  a  continuous  st(.ry  of  intrigue  by  the  women 
and  the  freedmen  about  him.  This  state  of  affairs  had  its  ad- 
vantages as  well  as  its  <lisad\antages,  for  some  of  his  favorites, 
like  the  freedman  Narcissus,  and  lUirrus,  the  prefect  of  the 
pretorian  guard,  were  men  of  affairs. 

361.  His  Patience  with  Details.  The  passion  for  details 
wliich  his  study  of  anticjuarian  mattc?-s  had  developed  in  him, 
made  it  imp(.ssil)le  for  him  to  lake  a  large  view  of  the  affairs  of 
govermnent,  l)Ut  it  made  him  |)atieMt  and  conservative  in  perfect- 
ing tJi^'  ^vstem  which  he  received  from  his  predecessors.  It 
made  him  willing  to  sit  for  hours  in  the  courts  of  law,  to  make 
sure  tliat  justice  was  pro[)erly  administered.  In  fact,  his  sym- 
|)athy  witli  the  unfortunate  extended  even  to  the  slaves,  whom 
he  protected  against  the  cruelty  of  their  masters. 

362.  His  Public  Works.  His  public  works  were  of  a  sub- 
staiitial  rather  than  of  a  showy  character.  He  im[)roved  the 
water  supi)ly  of  Rome  })y  finisliing  two  great  aqueducts,  the  Afjua 
Claudia  and  the  Anio  Novu-,  wlrich  his  predecessor  had  begun 
One  of  tliese  was  nearly  forty,  the  other  nearly  sixty,  miles  in 
length.     He  insured  a  steady  sui)i>ly  of  corn  to  Rome  by  con- 


THE   ESTAIiUSHxMENT  OF   THE   EMPIRE 


191 


structing  a  commodious  harbor  at  Ostia  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber. 

363.  His  Provincial  Policy.  There  was  great  military 
activity  on  Uie  froi>tier  during  Jiis  reign,  and  he  carried  out  impor- 
tant administrative  reforms  in  the  provinces.     The  most  note- 


Tin;  cLArDi.w  AQrKi)n<:T 

Worthy  of  his  achievements  abroad  was  the  coiupiest  of  southern 
Britain,  an  enter|)rise  which  he  conducted  iii  j)erson.  He 
watched  over  the  interests  of  the  provinces  as  Tiberius  had 
done,  and  return<'(l  to  Julius  (^icsar's  policy  of  granting  citizen- 
shij)  freely  to  the  i)rovincials. 

364.  Nero  and  his  Artistic  Tastes.  When  Xero  ascended 
the  throne  in  a.  d.  T)  1  he  was  but  seventeen  years  old.  He  was 
the  .son  of  the  empress  Agripj)ina  by  her  first  husband.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  (iermanicus,  and,  therefore,  Xero  was  of  the 
stock  of  the  Caesars  on  his  mother's  side.  He  thought  him.self 
a  great  artist,  and  gave  him.self  up  to  his  acting,  painting,  and 
music,  leaving  the  affairs  of  state  to  his  two  ministers,  the  })hi- 
losopher  Seneca  and  the  prefect  lUirrus.  For  five  years,  while 
these  men  were  in  authority,  the  government  was  well  managed, 
but  the  influence  of  Seneca  was  undermined  by  court  intrigues, 


19(» 


koM  \\    h  I  - n  .i;\ 


THE   ESTAlfLlSJIMKXT   OF   TIIK    K.MIMKK 


191 


«-nii:;ii.rr(l  in  any  l»n.^in(>>Ju»\\(Vfr  Inllinj^  .  .  .  lli.s  inollicr  Au- 
t<»nia  olUii  called  Inni  'an  inijH'rUci  man  ulmrn  nahnv  had  In-- 
^'un  Imt  liad  nol  litiiNln.l.'  And  when  she  ui^licd  h,  iiphraid 
any  one  uidi  dullness,  ^ll(  wonld  .siy,  'He  i.>  a  greater  I'ool  than 
iii\  .son  (l-indii!>.'  " 

359.  How  He  was  made  Emperor.  It  was  diis  man  whom 
the  sol(hcr>  fonnd  iti  a  l»alcony  in  the  |»ala<c  hi(nn<i-  Inliind  the 
hanii:in^->  of  the  door.  Half  in  nnx-kerv  and  half  seriouslv  thev 
(lra<:^^cd  him  onf,  sainted  him  asemiu'for,  antl  loreed  the  reluctant 
senate  to  reeo^nize  him. 

360.  His  Distrust  of  Himself  and  its  u:ffects.  The  distrust 
wliieh  Claudius  felt  of  himxlf  and  the  interest  whieli  he  had 
always  sh(»\\n  in  anli(jnaiian  pursuits  determine  in  la  r^'e  measure 
the  eharaeler  of  his  reii-n.  His  lack  of  self-eon li«lenee  made  him 
lean  helplessly  oti  (.liters,  and  as  a  ronit  he  was  easily  mana;^a.'(l 
\*\  the  memheis  of  hi>  Imn.s;  hold,  and  the  hi.st.trv  of  the  Court 
durin<:  his  reiirn  is  a  eoTilinuou>  storv  of  intriuiu  !)V  the  women 
and  the  freednien  al)(»ut  him.  This  stah'of  affairs  had  its  ad- 
vanta^'e>  a^  will  a.->  ils  di>ad\  anta^e>,  foi-  some  of  his  favorites, 
like  the  free(hiian  Xareix^ns,  and  linrrus,  the  prefect  of  the 
[)retorian  ;:uai(l,  were  men  «»f  alfairs. 

361.  His  Patience  with  Details.  The  passion  for  details 
wliieh  ln>  study  of  anticpiarlan  matters  had  develoj)ed  in  him, 
made  it  impo»il>le  for  him  lo  lake  a  lari!-e  view  of  the  alfairs  of 
^^oxernmeiit.  hut  it  mad*'  him  patient  ami  conferva ti\c  in  perfcet- 
in<;  the  system  whieh  he  received  from  his  predeees.sors.  It 
iua<le  liim  williiiLr  t<.  sit  for  hours  in  tlie<(.nrts  of  law,  to  make 
snre  that  justice  was  pri»perly  adniinislere«l.  In  tact,  his  sym- 
pathy with  the  unfortunate  extended  excn  lo  the  slaves,  whom 
lie  |)roteef(Ml  a.u'ainst  the  cruelt\  ..i  [heir  masters. 

362.  His  Public  Works.  His  pnMie  works  were  of  a  suh* 
stantial  ratlier  than  of  a  showy  chara<ter.  He  improved  the 
water  supply  of  iJomcl.y  finishinn- two  nreat  a(pieduets,  the  A(jua 
Claudia  and  the  Anio  Xdvns  wliich  his  predecessor  had  be^'un 
One  of  these  wa>  nearly  forty,  the  other  nearly  sixty,  miles  in 
len^'th.     He  insiued  a  steady  sup|)ly  of  corn  to  Home  bv  con- 


I 


struetin<:  a  (ommodious  harbor  at  Ostia  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber. 

363.  His  Provincial  Policy.  There  w;is  nicat  military 
activity  on  the  frouti(>r  dnrinn;  jiis  rei^n,  and  he  carried  out  iiupor- 
tant  administrative  reforms  in  tlie  provinces.     The  most  note- 


Til  I    <•[  V  ri)i  \  \    \{^i'i  i>i-"T 


worthy  of  his  acliievements  abn^ad  was  ihe  concpicst  of  southern 
Britain,  an  enter|»riM'  which  he  conducled  in  person.  He 
\\alch(Ml  o\er  the  intcre>ls  of  the  j>ro\inces  as  Tiberius  had 
iloiie,  and  returned  to  dulin^  C.nsar's  policy  of  ^lantin^M-ilizcn- 
shij)  fi'ecjy  to  the  provincials. 

364.  Nero  and  his  Artistic  Tastes.  When  Xero  ascemled 
the  throne  in  \.  d.  o  i  he  was  but  seventeen  years  old.  He  was 
the  son  of  the  enij)ress  A;rrij)pina  by  Jier  first  husband.  She  was 
the  dau<(hter  of  Cermauicus,  and,  thercfon',  Xero  was  of  the 
stock  of  the  Caesars  on  his  mother's  side.  He  thoU}.dil  himself 
a  irreat  artist,  and  irave  himself  u[>  to  his  actini';,  paintin;^,  and 
music,  Icaviu*;  the  alfairs  of  stal<'  to  his  two  ministers,  the  phi- 
losopher Sene<a  and  the  prefect  linrrns.  I-or  five  vears,  while 
these  men  were  iii  authority,  the  ^■overmnent  was  well  manajred, 
but  the  influence  of  Seneca  w  as  nndermined  bv  conrt  intri'nies 


192 


J{(>\1AN    Ilisr(t|;\ 


TiiK  i:staiujs[i\m:\  r  or   iiif  i:\ii'iin 


103 


NKUO 


and  in  (»2  JUirnis  died.  \cr(»  iuav  dinw  (.11'  all  scn^c  (.f  restraint, 
and  ^avf  frci'  rein  to  liis  tlnaliical  and  al•li^li^  laslc.s,  apiuNirin"- 
in  public  as  an  actor,  a  sui'^cr,  and  excn  a  .liaiiolccr  in  the  circns. 

The   hciiriit   of    his    artistic   tnllv    was 
reached  toward    the  end  of  his  rciiin 
when  he    visited  d reece   and   danced, 
sanu,  and   coinj)cle<l    in  chariot   races 
in  the  principal  cities  of  that  <-ountrv 
at  pnlilic  s[H'cta<les  arran<,^Ml  for  him. 
Kvervw  here  he  was  hailed  as  a  victor, 
and  returned  t(»  Konie  with   cij^ditecn 
hnn<lred   crowns   which    he    had    won 
in    these     contests.       Meanwhili^    tlic 
c-onrt  favorites  took  th<-  reins  into  their 
own  hands,  and  l.y  pla\in^  nj>on  the  jealous  suspicions  of  Nero, 
P''"^"-"I'"J  him    to  put    to  .hath  liis  mother  A;,n-ippina,  his  wife 
Octavia,  and   I'lilannicus  the  son  of  ('hiucnus. 

365.  The  Great  Fire  in  Rome.  In  the  sununer  of  (it  a 
fire  broke  out  in  some  du.ps  near  the  rircns  Maximus,  and, 
farmed  hy  a  hi;^!  win.l,  li-^d  h.ra  full  week,  reducing- i,i(. re  than 
liall  ol  the  city  1(.  ;.>hes.  The  ,|ory  \\;,s  current  m  the  streets 
that  the  emperor  had  had  the  cit\  s.l  on  fire,  in  (uder  that  he 
nii.dit  rel)uild  if  on  a  m.uv  mainiihcent  scale,  and  gossip  said 
tliat  while  the  fire  was  in  pro^re^s  he  watched  the  scene  from  the 
J)alacehnill  l.y  MaeicnaN.  :Mn.i;i!io-  meanwhile  a  jiassair^'  from  a 
pl.-iy  of  ins  own  w  hi.li  dccrihed  the  <aplmv  (.f  'l^-ov.  Troh- 
nl.ly  ncillur  (.f  ihoe  stories  is  true,  hut  they  illustrate  the 
p(»pular  «-oncc|.tion  of  the  emperor. 

366.  The  Christians  held    Responsible  for  the  Fire.     It 

was  perhaps  for  the  purpo.,-  of  lurninn-  suspicion  from  himself 
that  Xcrochar^rcMl  the  ( "hristians  with  having- set  the  city  on  fire. 
At  least  this  is  what  Tacitu.  tell^  ii,,  and  he  «r<M's  on  to  say: 
"Christus,  from  whom  the  name  {("hristian)  ha<l  its  orij^in, 
suirere.l  the  extreme  penalty  durin.-  the  reiun  of  Tiherius  at  the 
hands  of  one  of  our  procinalor.,  I'ontius  I'ilalus,  and  a  nu.st 
mischu  Nou>  sup<  rsliti.,n,  thir>  che<ke.l   for  the   moment,  a.^iin 


broke  out  not  only  in  Juda/a,  the  first  scurce  of  the  e\il,  hut  even 
in  l{ome,  the  me(>tinj.'-place  of  all  lioriiMc  an<l  immoral  practices 
from  all  (juai-lcrs  of  the  world."  The  fact  thai  the  Christians 
held  seci-cl  mc-iinLi's,  and  that  they  would  not  sacrifice  to  the 
ima;!:e  of  the  emperor  and  to  the  Roman  u'ods  excited  the  su.s- 
picions  of  the  poj.ulace,  who  lookc*!  upon  them  as  enemies  of 
society.  ( 'onse(|uenlIy  the  enipei-or  had  the  support  of  the 
rabble  behind  him  when  he  <'ondemned  many  of  them  to  death 
on  the  false  <-hari':<'  «>'  having.;'  set  fire  to  the  city.  I'he  manner  of 
their  death  is  desciibed  by  Tacitus;  *'('(»\cred  with  the  skins  of 
beasts,  ihey  were  torn  by  doj^s  an<l  pci'ishcd,  oi"  were  nailed  to 
crosses,  OI-  Were  <lo«»nn-d  to  the  flames  and  burnt,  to  serve  as  a 
ni^rhtly  iiluininati<»n,  when  daylitj,ht   had  expire«l." 

367.  Revolt  of  Galba  and  Death  of  Nero,  in  A.  D.  68. 
Nero  set  about  rebuildinjj;  the  cit\  on  a  \ei\-  elaborate  scale,  but 
I X  !<)!('  his  ixreal  schemes  were  bi-ouu'hl  to  c(  duplet  ion  the  murmur 
ol  iusiiii'eetion  \xa-<  heard  in  Caul.  It  be«-ame  ominous  indeed 
when  <  ialba  the  <;m\  <  i  noi  of  I  lilhci-  Sj.ain,  and  a  \eleran  leadc^r, 

I  ir  '1  llii-  -landaiil  of  rcxolt.  The  new  s  threw  .\ero  into  a  panic 
<'i  »c.ir  and  to  avoii!  death  at  the  hands  of  the  s(.ldiers  he  took  his 
own  hi'c.      With  his  death  llic  -Inlian  line  came  to  an.  eU(L 

368.  The  Provinces  under  Nero.  We  have  followed  the 
c<Mir.s«'  ol  e\(  nis  at  I'ome  and  in  llaly  dui'in^  Xcro's  rci^^n.  It 
icmains  hir  us  to  say  a  word  about  coudilions  in  the  provinces. 
Ne[-o,  like  Ins  predece-sors,  h»llowe«l  tin-  |>olicy  of  Augustus  in 
sli-en":lheiiin;i'  the  IVonliei-s  of  the  emj>ii(',  but  ma<le  no  serious 
attempts  to  push  them  h.rward.  The  i-ai-Iy  years  of  his  rei^n 
W(r<'  years  of  pi'ospcrity  U>v  the  [)ro\inces,  lar^'cly  because  the 
allairs  of  stal<"  were  in  the  hands  of  Seneca,  who  was  an  able 
statesman  and  was  familiar  with  the  nee<ls  of  the  |>rovinces,  since 
he  was  a  provincial  liimself  by  birth.  Even  after  the  influence 
of  Seneca  waned,  cojidilious  abroad  did  not  ^.i^row  percej)tiblv 
woise  until  the  cmpeioi-  bc*i;an  rcbuildiu}.':  Rome.  "^Fo  .secure 
funds  h)i-  this  purpi.sc  he  turne(|  !o  ihe  j)ro\inces,  and  the 
oppressi\<'  ta\<'->  wliien  were  laid  u|)on  them  explain  in  part 
the  insiure'ctioiis  which  led  to  his  oveithr'.w. 


m 


192 


ROMAN    m.ST(.KV 


NKRO 


and  in  G2  Burrus  died.     Nero  nnw  threw  off  all  sense  of  restraint, 
and  gave  free  rein  to  his  theatrical  and  artistic  tastes,  appearing' 
in  public  as  an  actor,  a  singer,  and  even  a  charioteer  in  the  eireus. 

The  height  of  his  artistic  folly  was 
reached  toward  the  end  of  his  reign, 
when  he  visited  (irccc(>  and  danced, 
sang,  and  conij)ete(I  in  chariot  races 
in  tlie  [)rincij)al  cities  of  that  conntry 
at  }>ul)lie  spectacles  arranged  for  liiin. 
Everywhere  he  was  hailed  as  a  victor, 
and  returned  to  Rome  with  ei<rhteen 
liundred  crowns  which  he  had  won 
in  these  contests.  Meanwliile  the 
e<»nrt  favorites  took  the  reins  into  their 
own  handstand  hy  i>laying  n})on  the  jealous  suspicions  of  Nero, 
persiwuli'.l  him  to  j»nt  to  death  liis  mother  Agrippina,  his  wife 
Oetavia,  and  IJritarinicus  tiie  son  of  Claudius. 

365.  The  Great  Fire  in  Rome.  In  the  sunnner  of  04  a 
fire  broke  out  in  some  shops  near  the  ( 'irens  Alaximus,  and, 
fanned  l>y  a  high  wind,  raged  h.r  a  full  week,  reducing  more  tiian 
half  of  the  city  to  ashes.  The  story  was  current  in  the  streets 
that  the  emperor  had  ha<l  the  city  set  on  fire,  in  order  that  he 
might  rebuild  it  on  a  nun-e  magnificent  scale,  and  gossip  said 
that  while  tlie  fire  was  m  progress  he  watelied  the  scene  from  tlie 
palace  built  by  Maecenas,  singing  meanwhile  a  passage  from  a 
play  of  Ins  own  which  described  the  (apture  of  Troy.  Prob- 
ably neith(«r  of  tliese  stories  is  true,  but  they  illustrate  the 
|)opuhir  conception  of  tiie  emper<»r. 

366.  The  Christians  held  Responsible  for  the  Fire.  It 
was  perhaps  for  tlie  j.inposc  of  turning  suspici(.n  from  himself 
that  Nero  charged  the  ( 'hrisfians  with  having  set  the  city  on  fire. 
At  least  this  is  what  Tacitus  tells  us,  and  he  goes  on  to  sav: 
"Christus,  from  whom  the  name  (du-istian)  had  its  origin, 
suffered  the  extreme  jx-nalty  during  the  reign  of  Tiberius  at  the 
hands  of  one  of  our  pnn  nral<.rs,  Pontius  Pilatus,  and  a  most 
mischievous  superstition,  thus  checked  for  the  moment,  again 


TTIE   ESTABLISH M EXT    DF   THE    EMrilU: 


193 


broke  out  not  only  in  Jnchea,  the  first  s(}urce  of  the  evil,  but  even 
in  Rome,  the  meeting-place  of  all  horrible  and  inunoral  practices 
from  all  (piarters  of  the  world."  The  fact  thai  the  Christians 
held  secret  meetings,  and  that  thtw  would  not  sacrifice  to  the 
image  of  the  emperor  and  to  the  Uonnin  gods  excited  the  sus- 
picions of  the  populace,  who  looked  upon  them  as  enemies  of 
society.  (^)nse(|uently  the  emj)eror  had  the  support  of  the 
rabble  behind  him  when  he  condemned  many  of  them  to  death 
on  the  false  charge  of  having  set  fire  to  the  city.  The  manner  of 
their  death  is  described  by  Tacitus:  "Covered  with  the  skins  of 
l)easts,  they  were  torn  by  dogs  and  |>erished,  or  were  nailed  to 
crosses,  or  were  doomed  to  the  (lames  and  burnt,  to  serve  as  a 
nightly  illumination,  w  Ikmi  daylight  ha<l  i'X|)ired." 

367.  Revolt  of  Galba  and  Death  of  Nero,  in  A.  D.  68. 
Xero  set  about  rebuilding  the  citv  on  a  verv  elaborate  scale,  but 
before  his  great  schemes  were  brought  to  completion  the  murmur 
of  insurrection  was  heaid  in  (Jaul.  It  became  ominous  indeed 
when  (Jalba  the  g»»venioi'  of  Hither  Spain,  and  a  veteran  leader, 
raised  the  standard  of  re\oll.  The  news  threw  Nei-o  into  a  panic 
of  ic;ii-  and  \i>  avoi<l  death  at  the  hands  of  the  soldici's  he  took  his 
own  life.      With  liis  <lealh  the  Julian  line  came  to  an  vnd. 

368.  The  Provinces  under  Nero.  We  have  followed  the 
ctMirsc  of  events  at  Home  and  in  llalv  dnrin*;  Nero's  rei<:n.  It 
remains  for  us  to  say  a  word  about  conditions  in  the  provinces. 
Nero,  like  his  predecessors,  followed  the  policy  of  Augustus  in 
strengthening  the  frontiers  of  the  empire,  but  made  no  serious 
attempts  to  j)nsh  th(;m  forward.  The  early  years  of  his  reign 
were  years  of  prosperity  for  the  pro\inces,  largely  beeau.se  the 
affairs  of  state  were  in  the  hands  of  Seneca,  who  was  an  able 
statesman  and  was  familiar  witli  tlie  needs  of  the  [>rovinces,  since 
lie  was  a  provincial  himself  by  l)irtli.  Even  after  the  influence 
of  Seneca  waned,  conditions  abroad  did  not  grow  perceptibly 
worse  until  the  emperor  began  rebuilding  Rome.  To  secure 
funds  for  this  purpose  he  tnrne(l  to  the  provinces,  and  the 
oppressive  taxes  which  were  laid  upon  them  ex|)lain  in  part 
the  insurrections  which  led  to  his  overthrow. 


194 


ROM  AX    IIIsr«)UV 


369.  Representative  Assemblies  in  the  Provinces.  Per- 
haps the  most  iriteRstinj^  i>{)liti(al  ilcvelopinent  al)roa(l  during 
this  period  was  the  csttibhshimnt  of  n  prTsmtatlvc  assemblies. 
These  asscnblies  were  closely  connected  witli  the  worship  of 
the  emperor.  After  his  (hath  Juhus  <  aoar  \\a,>  regarded  as  a 
god  in  tlie  j>ro\inees.  Tlie  same  honors  weri'  paid  to  Augustus 
and  his  successors  even  (lurin<,'  tlieir  lifetime,  and  the  practice  of 
paying  divine  honors  to  the  emperor  in  the  j)r()vinces  was  en- 
couraged and  systematized  in  the  lio})e  of  developing  a  spirit  of 
loyalty  and  a  sense  of  imperial  unity.  In  several  of  the  provinces 
representatives  met  amuially  to  anam^e  tlu'  details  of  the  imperial 
worship,  and  to  impose  taxes  for  its  proper  maintenance.  But 
these  gatherings  gradually  develoj)ed  the  ]»ractiee  of  discussing 
other  matters  of  general  interest  to  their  respective  provinces  and 
of  sending  deputations  tt»  tlie  rmperor  to  lay  the  results  of  their 
delil)erations  before  him.  The  establishment  of  these  provincial 
councils  is  interesting  because  it  is  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to 
develop  on  a  largi'  scale  our  modern  system  (»f  representative 
government, 

370.  Literature  under  Nero.  Within  the  vcars  of  Nero's 
reign  falls  the  principal  literary  activity  of  scviral  distinguished 
men  of  letters,  l)Ut  the  literature  of  the  period  reflects  in  a  striking 
way  the  spirit  of  the  times.  Discouraged  or  embittered,  as  the 
case  might  be.  by  tlie  state  of  society,  men  sought  refuge  in  phi- 
losopliy,  or  railed  at  the  conditions  abont  them,  (tr,  turning  their 
thouglits  back  to  the  better da\s  of  the  past,  tried  to  imitate  their 
predecessors,  or  carefull}-  stutlied  the  writings  of  tlie  past.  For 
these  reasons  the  literature  of  \hv  period  takes  the  form  of  phi- 
losophy, of  satire,  of  labored  imitations  of  earlier  productions, 
or  of  learned  conuncntaries  u[)on  them. 

371.  Seneca,  4  B.  C- A  D.  65.  The  most  distinguished 
writer  of  philosophy  was  Lucius  Annaeus  Seneca,  a  Spaniard  by 
birth,  who,  as  we  have  already  noticed,  was  for  several  years  the 
tutor  and  minister  of  Xcro.  He  wrote  mainly  on  moral  subjects, 
treating  such  themes  as  Anc/rr,  Tniriquilh'fjj  of  Mind,  and  the 
Brevitij  of   Life.      Some  of  tliese  treatises  nr:  in  the    form  of 


THE    ESTAHI.ISIIMEXT   OF    THE    EMPIRE 


195 


essays;  others  are  letters  addressed  to  his  friend  Lucilius.  His 
philosophy  was  neither  original  nor  deep,  but  he  was  a  man  of 
learning;  he  had  an  intimate  knowledge  of  human  nature,  and 
originated  a  style  which  in  large  measure  supplanted  that  of 
Cicero  as  a  model  for  later  writers.  He  composed  a  number  of 
plays  also,  based  on  Greek  subjects,  but  they  are  artificial  in 
ttieir  style  and  unsuitable  for  acting. 

372.  Persius,  A.  D.  34-62.  Persius  the  satirist  has  left  us 
but  six  poems.  He  aims  to  follow  Horace,  but  shows  none  of  his 
predecessor's  kindly  humor,  delicacy  of  touch,  or  felicity  of  ex- 
pression. Still  many  of  his  fierce  attacks  upon  hypocrisy  and 
immorality  reveal  his  intense  sincerity,  and  have  a  vigor  of  style 
which  few  other  Latin  writers  have  equalled. 

373.  Petronius,  Died  A.  D.  66.  In  somewhat  the  same 
field  is  the  satire  of  Petronius.  F( )r  originality  of  conception  and 
skill  in  treatment  it  surpasses  all  the  other  literary  productions 
of  the  period.  It  is  eonnnoiily  called  a  satire,  and  does  in  fact 
hold  the  follies  and  vices  of  society  up  to  ridicule,  but  it  is  in 
reality  a  romance.  In  fact  it  is  the  earliest  known  work  of  prose 
fiction.  It  is  a  story  of  low 'life,  and  tells  the  experiences  of  a 
number  of  scapegrace  freemen  and  rich,  vulgar  freedmen. 
Only  a  small  i)art  of  it  has  survived. 

374.  Lucan,  A.  D.  39-65.  As  Persius  tried  to  imitate 
Horace,  so  Lucan  followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Vergil.  His  epic 
poem  entitled  the  PharsaUa,  is  a  story  in  verse  of  the  civil  war 
between  Pompcy  and  Caesar.  The  triumph  of  Caesar,  is  set 
forth  as  a  great  disaster,  and  Pompey  and  Cato  are  the  heroes. 
It  shows  many  of  the  literary  vices  of  the  period,  being  full  of 
declamation  and  packed  with  learned  references  to  mythology. 
There  are  fine  passages  here  and  there,  bnt  when  read  in  sequence 
it  is  tiresome. 

375.  Learned  Editions  of  the  Classics.  Tlie  tendency 
to  dwell  upon  the  great  works  of  the  past  shows  itself  still  more 
clearly  in  the  works  of  learned  men  like  Valerius  Probus  who 
brought  out  editions  of  Lucretius,  Vergil,  and  Horace  and  dis- 
cussed their  language  and  use  of  words. 


I'Jf) 


RDMW     II'sroliY 


376.  Summary  of  Events  under  the  Julian  Emperors, 
27  B.  C.-A.  D.  68.  hioursludyor  this  period  we  have  noticed 
that  the  formal  c'staMislinicrit  of  the  Em[)irc  d.itcs  from  27  B.  c. 
when  Octiivian  received  tlie  tribiiiiieian  and  proconsular  powers, 
upon  which  the  author! fv  of  ilu.  emi)eror  was  based,  and  the 
titles  of  Augustus  and  pnnct  p.s.  His  pohtical  policy  was  to 
retain  the  old  repubhcan  forms,  and  to  divide  the  autliority 
between  himself  and  the  senate.  In  the  provinces  lie  appointed 
good  governors,  and  ;.'ave  them  long  terms  of  office,  and  he  devel- 
oped the  territory  i)Utsi(le  of  Italy,  and  fortified  the  frontiers. 
In  Rome  and  Ilalv  he  constructed  manv  i)ublic  works,  souj^iit  to 
reform  society,  gave  imjiorlance  to  si  nators,  kni<d»ts,  and  Angns- 
talcs,  and  fostered  literature.  Before  his  death  he  conferred 
upoji  liis  stei)Son  Tiljeiius  the  tril)unician  and  pioionsular  power.> 
and  thus  assured  the  succession  to  'rilxrius.  The  susj>icious 
character  (/f  I'iberius  made  him  tyrannical  at  home,  but  Ilalv 
and  tlie  provinces  llourlshed.  His  successor  Gains,  or  Caligula, 
Vvas  an  unbalanced  spendthrift.  He  was  followed  by  Claudius, 
who  uas  easilv  influenced  bv  otliers,  but  on  the  whole  was  a 
conscientious,  careful  ruler.  X'-ff.  his  successor,  governed 
wisely  jit  first,  but  >oom  fell  iiilo  lArr.^.-.t  ->  and  ultimately  look  his 
own  life.  In  his  reign  oecuricil  llie  «',reat  fire  at  Rome  and  the 
consequent  persecution  of  the  Christians. 


CIIAPTKU   XI  [ 


FKOaI    VHSI' ASIAN     To    SKITIMITS    SKYKKHS 

(A.    !).    <•/.)     VXS) 

H.)w  tho  I-mpiro  ovpamlfVi  m  its  farflu'st  limit  uivh-r  Trujan -How  in- 
tonial  evils  aiHl  tho  pressure  ..f  th."  nnrtl.rn,  l>url»aria.<s  l.e^an  to  threaten 
its  life. 

377.  Galba,  Otho,  Vitellius,  April  A.  D.  68 -December 

69  Tlu^  career  of  (hUba,  Xero's  successor,  was  short-lived. 
The  .;ternness  with  which  he  repressed  disorchn-  among  the  sob 
diers  in  (Germany  threw  tliem  into  mutiny,  and  they  retaliated 
by  naming  their  commander  Aulus  Vitellius  emperor,  while  the 
prctorian  guar.l  in  Uouks  ^lisappointed  at  the  new  emperor's 
lack  of  generosity  to  them,  i)roclaimed  M.Salvius  Otho  emperor. 
Galba  was  assassinated  in  January,  ()9;  the  senate  confirmed  the 
choice  of  Otho,  aii<l  the  new  emperor  set  out  for  the  North  to 
check  the  advanee  of  liis  rival.  lie  was  defeated,  however,  in 
northern  Italy,  and  Vitellius  was  at  once  recognized  by  the  senate- 

378.  Vespasian  Proclaimed  Emperor.  Meanwhile,  this 
time  in  the  East,  a  new  as{)irant  for  the  throne  had  arisen,  in 
the  p<'rson  of  Vespasian.  With  all  i)ossible  despatch  two  of  his 
lieutenants  passed  over  into  Italy.  Vitellius  was  defeated  in  a 
bloody  battle  at  Cremona,  and  tlie  troops  of  Vespasian  entered 
Rome  December  20,  a.  d.  09.  On  the  following  day  Vesi)asian 
re(!eived  from  the  senate  the  tribunician  power,  and  the  title  of 

Augustus. 

379.  His  Character  and  Appearance.  The  new  emperor 
was  of  humble  birth.  His  family  came  from  the  Sabine  town  of 
Reate,  the  birthplace  of  that  representative  of  the  sturdy  Italian 
stock,'Varro.  His  grandfather  had  made  his  livelihood  by  act- 
ing as  agent  in  collecting  small  debts;  his  father  was  a  tax- 
cohcctor.  His  humble  surroundings  in  early  life,  and  his  training 
as  a  snldier,  had  made  liis  tastes  simple  and  his  methods  direct, 

197 


IDS 


KOMW    HISTORY 


He  had  none  of  the  narrow  imiiucij)al  j)rejiulice  of  a  native 
Roiiiaii,  nor  the  cLiss  |»rejn(li«v  «>f  ;ni  ai'istocrat,  which  had 
hampered  his  [)redr( rssors  in  tlieir  rrfornis.  His  squarely  built 
figure,  his  thick  neck,  his  Inoad  rliin,  arid  his  coarse  features 
revealed  his  |»lelK'ian  ori^nn,  hut  siM.kc  volumes  for  his  firmness, 
his  common  scnsr,  and  his  shrcwdiu'ss  in  dealing  with  the  prac- 
tical affairs  of  life. 

380.  The  Senatorial  Order,  an  Imperial  Aristocracy. 
\\ith  an  emperor  of  sudi  a  type  it  would  he  almost  possible  to 
foretell  tlie  character  of  his  reign.  He  applied  himself  with  great 
zeal  and  <leterminatiou  to  the  eomi)lete  reorganization  of  the 
finances.  He  showed  his  freedorti  from  class  prejudice  and 
from  munici{)al  prcjudier  l)v  incly  jriving  the  senatorial  rank  to 
provincials,  and  v»iih  thai  directness  of  purpose  which  charac- 
terized liim,  he  did  not  in  all  cases  recpiire  a  candidate  for  sena- 
torial honors  to  hoM  a  maj^nstracy,  !>ut  he  conferred  the  dignity 
upon  him  directly.  Heneef.»rth  the  senatorial  order  ceased  to 
l»e  an  aristocracy  of  the  i  itv  of  Rome,  but  became  an  aristocracy 
of  the  empire,  whose  privileges  wer  •  within  the  gift  of  the 
emperor. 

381.  Latin  Citizenship.  In  tlic  same  sj>irit  of  fairness 
toward  the  [irovinces  he  gav-  the  rights  of  Latin  citizenship, 
whicli  carried  with  it  some  of  the  privileges  of  Roman  citizenship, 
to  the  hitherto  sul)ject  communities  in  some  of  tiie  provinces. 
These  two  practices  formed  a  definite  part  of  the  policy  of  the 
Flavian  emperors,  of  whom  Vespasian  was  tlie  first,  and  perluips 
nothing  did  more  to  develop  throughout  the  emjiire  a  unity  of 
interests  and  a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  central  government. 

382.  Attempt  to  Found  a  Gallic  Empire.  Turbulence  in 
the  provinces  lie  rci)ressed  with  a  stern  hand.  At  the  beginning 
of  his  reign  a  Batavian  leader  named  Civilis  led  an  uprising 
among  the  people  in  what  is  now  Holland.  The  movement  was 
joined  by  many  of  the  auxiliaries  serving  witli  the  Roman  army 
in  Germany,  and  l)y  some  of  the  legions.  All  Germany  seemed 
to  rally  to  the  standard  of  Civilis  in  his  effort  to  set  up  a  Gallic 
emi)ire,  but  dissensions  sprang  up  among  the  leaders,  as  they 


FROM    VESPASIAN   TO  SEl'TIMH  S   SEVKRUS 


199 


had  among  the  followers  of  Sertoriiis  a  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before,  and  the  ineii)ient  Gallic  empire  was  crushed  out  as  the 
independent  govennuent  in  Spain  liad  been.  The  central 
government  was  still  strong  enough  to  hold  the  outlying  provuiees 
to  their  allegiance.     The  time  for  disruption  had  not  yet  come. 

383.  Revolt  in  Judaea.  The  other  important  military  enter- 
prise of  the  period  was  the  capture  of  Jerusalem.  As  far  back 
as  the  time  of  Pompev,  Judiea  had  been  brought  in  a  measure 
under  Roman  control.     Just  after  the  beginning  of  our  era  it 


THE  8EVEN-BUANCHKI>  C  V  NI>1.I>  T ICK  FUOM  THK   AHCII   OF  TITUS 

became  a  province,  and  a  Roman  procurator  was  set  over  it,  but 
the  people  were  treated  willi  great  consideration,  and  the  sanctity 
of  the  Temple  was  carefully  observed.  But  a  large  party  among 
the  Jews  resented  the  presence  of  the  Ronums,  and  their  ani- 
mosity was  farmed  into  a  flame  of  hatred  by  Caligula's  attempt 
to  have  his  statue  l)laced  in  the  Temi)le.  (^)nsequently  they 
were  ready  to  rise  in  revolt  when,  in  60  a.  d.,  a  garrison  was 
placed  in  the  Holy  City  for  the  first  time  l)y  Gessius  Florus  the 
procurator.     Vespasian,   who   had   not  yet  been  called   to   the 


1!)S 


I;m\I  W     ||!s|n|;v 


lie  IiUil  HOIK'  of  till-  iiarn)\v  iniuiicipal  prejudice  of  a  nalive 
Kumaii,  iK.r  flu-  ri.-i.^  rMvjndi.r  (»f  an  ari>t(KTat,  which  had 
haiii|)cR'd  hi.-^  j'ic«lr«  i>>or>  in  (heir  ifiuini>.  His  scjuarelv  biiih 
figure,  his  thick  neck,  \i\<  l.road  '-hin,  and  his  coarse  features 
I'cvraled  liis  plebeian  i>ri,':in,  hnl  >;»(.k<-  vohnncs  \':>v  his  firnniess, 
his  enm    .  ,  and  his  shrcu<lncss  in  deahng  with  the  prac- 

tical atfaii-s  of  life 

380.  The  Senatorial  Order,  an  Imperial  Aristocracy. 
Uith  an  emperor  of  >iich  a  typ*'  it  would  he  almost  possible  to 
foretell  the  cliaracler  <»f  his  rci.ni.  Wv  applied  himself  with  (jreat 
/^•al  and  determination  In  llie  complete  reorLrani/ation  of  the 
(inane.  ~.  II(»  showed  his  fnM'dnni  from  cla->  prejudice  aud 
from  mmucipal  jHrjudirc  by  ;reel\  ::ivini;-  the  .senatorial  rank  to 
provincials,  and  with  tha!  directness  of  fjurpose  which  rharae- 
lenzed  him,  he  did  not  in  all  ct  ie([nire  a  candidate  for  sena- 
torial hitnor^  t:.  hold  a  mai:i-ti-a.  y,  but  he  confcrrcil  the  diLHiitv 
np«»n  him  din-rily.      Ilrmvh.rth  liir  M-natorial  «.rd'r  cea^.-d  to 

be  an  aii^lui  racy  nf  ihe  city  of  Koine  bnl  became  an  aiistocracv 
of  tlic  empire,  whose  [»ri  V  ilcircs  wer.-  within  the  ^i'iff  of  the 
cinp('rni 

381.  Latin  Citizenship.  In  t!ic  same  spirit  of  fairness 
toward  the  provincs  h*  ■  •'•'  th.  ii^hl>  of  Latin  cili/cnship. 
which  «-arried  widi  it  sonu  oi  me  pii\  ilep-s  of  Ibmian  citizenship, 
to  the  hitherto  subject  conimunilie.  in  souk  of  the  provinces. 
These  two  l)ractiees  formed  a  dclinilc  part  of  the  policy  of  the 
Flavian  emperors,  of  whom  Vespasian  was  the  flr^f,  ;,(id  perhaps 
nothinir  did  more  to  (ievelop  (hn»n^hoiU  iIr;  i-.npirc  a  nnitv  of 
interests  and  a  spirit  of  loyalty  (o  (he  cetitral  i;-overuinent. 

382.  Attempt  to  Found  a  Gallic  Empire.  Turbulence  in 
tlic  provinces  In-  rcpresMMl  wilh  a  -l(  rn  hand.  At  tin  bc^nnnin^' 
of  his  reii:n  a  liatavian  leader  named  ('ivilis  led  an  uprisin^r 
amono;  th«!  people  in  whal  is  now  Holland.  The  movemcni  was 
joine(l  by  many  of  the  auxiliarie  rvini^^  with  the  Roman  army 
in  Germany,  and  by  some  of  the  legions.  All  dermanv  seemed 
to  rally  to  the  standard  of  Civilis  in  his  effort  to  .  t  up  a  OaHie 
em[»ire,   bnl   di>sensir.ns  sf>ranir  up  amonir  th(>  leaders,  as  they 


IKoM    VKSPVSIAN     n.    Sf.niMll  s    si  VI  IM   S 


1*>*) 


had  union-  the  followers  of  Sertorius  a,  hundred  and  lifty  years 
before,  aud  the  ineipieul  (Jallic  emi)ire  was  crushed  out  as  the 
indepJndeut  o;overnnienl  in  Spain  had  been.  The  central 
.^.vernulent  was  still  strong  enou-h  to  hohl  the  oullyuig  provmces 
to  tlieir  allegiance.     The  time  for  disruption  had  not  yet  come. 

383.  Revolt  in  Jud«a.  The  other  important  military  enter- 
prise of  llu-  IHTi'xl  ^vas  tlie  capture  of  Jerusalem.  As  far  back 
us  the  time  of  Pompe;. ,  huhea  had  been  brou-hl  in  a  measure 
under  Roman  eontroL     Just  aiter  the  beginning  ol  our  era  it 


■rilL  ShVLN-HKWCin  i>  rv\i.i.i>r.cK  kkom    iiii.  aium  oi    rues 

became  a  province,  and  a  Roman  pnx-nrator  wa^  m-I  over  it,  but 
the  l)eople  were  treale.l  with  great  c.)nsideralion,  and  the  sanctity 
nf  the  Temple  uas  carefully  obscrve.l.  lUit  a  large  party  among 
the  -lews  resented  the  presence  of  the  Romans,  and  their  ani- 
mositv  was  fanned  into  a  llaine  of  hatred  by  Caligula's  attempt 
to  have  liis  statue  placed  in  the  Temple.  Conscciuently  they 
were  ready  to  rise  in  revolt  when,  in  CC  a.  i>.,  a  garrison  was 
placed  in  the  Holv  City  for  the  iirst  time  by  Cessius  Florus  the 
jHocnrator.      Vespasian,    who    had    not    yet    l»een    called    to    the 


200 


i;oM  v\    irisi(ii;v 


throne,   was   scnf    to    rrdii..-    ihc   <niiiiirv.      rirfnrc   jic    rcaclic;! 
Jerusalem,    liowever,    he    was    suiiimoiie;!    Id    Ilalv    to    sueercil 

t'' 

VitelHu.s. 

384.  The  Capture  of  Jerusalem.  \'es|.asi;,irs  son  Tiins 
was  left  in  eoniinaml,  and  in  ihe  >|»rini(  ol  a.  i».  70  l)et;an  ihe 
sie^^e  of  Jerusalem.      It    i>  said   that  a    miihon   people  had  ^Mlh- 


ini.    (<M.f>>I    I    M    oi;    ll.wiW    AMI-IIMII 


I    \I1C1 


ered  in  the  <-it_v  lo  .-elehralr  the  IVa  I  ..f  llir  Pav...ver.  (  )nlside 
the  walls  wen-  .i'ditv  di..u>and  leirjonaries  and  aiixiliari... 
Starvation  reduced  the  population  to  tli--  (lin->t  exlremity,  hut 
the  city  refused  to  surrender.  Men,  women,  and  children  t'ou^rht 
si.le  hy  side  in  its  defeFise.  At  l.si  il,r  soldiers  of  'V[\u^  f,„ved 
theirwayin.      The  Temple  u  as  Inn  in-d  ;  die  city  m/.-d  lo  ihe 

groun<l,  an.l  a  ploiij^h  wa>  pavM-d  over  llie  >i|,-.      Th,    u.n.rv  <>f 


200 


Roman    HlslnliV 


throne,   was  scut    to   ndiicc   ilic   coinitrv.      Before   lie   readied 
Jerusalem,    however,    he    was    Miinnioiie;]    lo    Italy    to   siieeeed 

Vi  tell  ins. 

384.  The  Capture  of  Jerusalem.     Vespasian's    son    I'itns 

was  left  in  eoniiiiand,  ami  Ifi  the  s|>rin<^^  of  a.  d.  70  began  the 
siege  of  Jerusalem.     It  is  said  that  a   million  people  had  galli- 


TIIl.    CDL' 


M    OK    FLAVIAN    A  M  IM  I  HH  I    v  1  JC  h 


ered  in  tlie  city  to  eele]>rale  the  FeasI  of  the  [»;issover.  Ontsi.lc 
tiie  walls  were  eighty  thousand  legionaries  aiid  auxiharies. 
Starvation  reduced  the  population  to  the  direst  extremity,  but 
the  city  refused  to  surrender.  Men,  w  omen,  and  children  fouglit 
side  by  side  in  its  defense.  At  last  the  .soldiers  of  Titus  forced 
their  way  in.  'Ilie  1\-mple  was  burned;  the  city  was  razed  to  (he 
ground,  and  a  I)lougli  w.-.s  passed  o\rr  the  site.     Tlu    u.  lory  of 


FROM     VESPASI  W     r<)    SKPTIMIirs    SLOVKRITS 


201 


tit 

a, 

o 
cu 

O 

< 

o 

55 
< 


Titus  was  coiniiK'nionilrd  al  Rome  l>y  a  triuini)hal  arch,  which 
shows  to  this  day  carved  iij)oii  it  the  seven-branched  candlestick 
of  the  Temple,  the  table  of  shewljread,  and  the  g(jlden  trumpets. 

385.  The  Colosseum  Dedicated  in  A.  D.  80.  This  arch 
and  the  Colosseum,  wliich  was  also  built  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian, 
arc  two  of  the  most  imposing  monuments  which  the  Roman 
world  hfus  left  us.  The  ('olosseum  is  in  the  shape  of  an  ellipse, 
about  six  lumdred  feet  long,  and  five  hundred  wide.  The  outer 
wall,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  one  liuiidre(l  and  fifty  feet,  is 
pierced  l)y  four  rows  of  arches,  corresponding  to  the  four  stories 
of  the  building.  The  seals  within  are  arranged  like  steps  leading 
up  from  the  arena,  and  were  capable  of  holding  al)out  forty-live 
thousand  people.  The  building  was  opened  by  Vespasian's  son 
and  successor  Titus,  and  gladiatorial  conlesls  were  held  in  it 
until  A.  I).  4.)4,  and  hunts  of  wild  animals  for  a  century  more. 

386  Public  Baths.  In  the  reign  of  Titus  falls  also  the  con- 
struction of  the  earliest  of  tlu'  |)ubli(*  baths  of  which  we  have  any 
remains.  At  the  lieginning  of  the  fourth  century  there  are  said 
to  have  been  a  ihousajid  such  establishments  larg(^  and  small  in 
the  city.  These  structures  were  very  elaborate.  The  larger 
ones,  like  that  of  Titus,  had  not  only  rooms  for  hot  and  cold  and 
steam  baths,  but  a|)artments  for  athletic  exercises  and  for 
lounging,  talking,  and  lecturing. 

387.  Titus,  A.  D.  79-81.  Thr  reign  onitns  was  very  short. 
His  heidth  was  already  im|)aired  when  h  >  mounted  the  ihrou", 
and  within  two  yt'ars  he  died,  lie  was  an  accomjjlislied  man  of 
great  tact  and  ability.  These  persoiuil  (pialities,  joined  to  the 
lavish  way  in  which  he  furnished  the  peoj)le  amu.sements,  made 
him  the  "(hirling  of  the  world,"  as  Tacitus  calls  him. 

388.  The  Destruction  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  in 
A.  D.  79.  Th(^  most  noteworthy  even!  which  occurred  in  hi; 
reign  was  the  destruction  of  I*oinpeii  and  Herculaneum  by  the 
(  ruption  of  Vesuvius.  The  catastrophe  came  so  suddenly  and 
the  cities  have  Ixvu  so  well  preserved  by  the  enveloping  layers  of 
•i^lir's.  mud,  and  lava  lluit  by  dignn";  down  to  the  site  of  Pompeii 
\xe  .^ee  how  the  streets  were  paved,  how  the  houses  and  shops 


•I 


I'lUiW   VKsi'xsi  \v    I'd  si:i'ri\Fn's  sioviciirs 


201 


lllil  ''  llHIIllllllMI 


fa 

o 


o 


Titus  was  comiiKiiioiaUMl  at  Uoiiu'  I)y  a  triujiij)hal  arch,  v.liich 
shows  to  lliis  <lay  carved  upon  it  the  scvcfi-hranchcd  caiKhcstick 
of  the  Temple,  the  tahle  of  shewhread,  and  the  <j;olden  trumpets. 

385.  The  Colosseum  Dedicated  in  A.  D.  80.  This  arcli 
and  the  Colosseum,  wliich  was  also  huilt  in  the  reij^u  of  Vespasian, 
are  two  of  the  most  iuij)osiuj.j;  rnouuments  which  the  Uonian 
worhl  has  left  us.  The  Colosseum  is  in  the  shape  of  an  ellipse, 
about  six  liundnMl  feel  lonjj;,  and  five  hundri'd  wide.  The  outer 
wall,  wliich  rises  to  a  hcii;hl  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  is 
j)ierced  by  four  rows  of  arches,  corresponding^  to  the  four  stories 
of  the  hnildinic-  The  seals  within  are  ai-r,iii;.';ed  like  steps  leadin'( 
up  from  the  arena,  and  wei'c  capable  of  holdin;;;  about  forty-five 
thousand  [»eople.  The  buildin;.;'  was  opene(l  by  Vespasian's  son 
and  successoi'  l^itus,  and  ^ladialoi'ial  conlesis  were  held  in  it 
until  A.  I).  1)1,  and  hunts  of  wild  jinimals  for  a  century  UKjre. 

386  Public  Baths.  In  the  reii^n  of  Titus  falls  also  the  con- 
struction of  the  cai'lie^l  of  lliv'  public  balhs  of  uhich  w'r.  have  any 
remains.  At  the  bei:;imiin.:;  of  (he  fourth  century  there  arc*  said 
to  have  been  a  thousand  such  establishment  larj.!;e  and  small  in 
the  citv.  These  stiMictures  were  verv  elaborate.  The  lai<j:«i' 
ones,  like  thai  of  Titus,  had  not  only  rooms  for  hot  and  cold  and 
steam  baths,  but  apartments  for  athletic  exercises  and  for 
louii^in;!;,  talkiuij;,  and  Icclurini:;. 

387.  Titus,  A.  D.  79- 81.  Tli"  rel;;n  of  Titus  was  \'ery  short. 
His  health  was  alrc.uly  impaired  wh;'ii  h  «  mounted  the  thron;-, 
and  within  two  years  he  died  He  was  an  accomplished  man  of 
«^reat  tad  and  ability.  These  personal  (jualities,  joined  to  the 
lavish  w;iy  in  whicti  he  fin'nished  the  people  amusements,  made 
him  the  "darlin-!;  of  the  woi'ld,"  as  Tacitus  calls  him. 

388.  The  Destruction  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  in 
A.  D.  79.  'Ilie  most  nolewoi-jliy  even!  which  occui'i'cd  in  hi; 
i«'ij.ni  was  the  dcsli-nction  <»f  Pompeii  and  llercuhineum  by  the 
(  rup'ion  of  Vesuvius.  The  catastrophe  came  so  suddenly  and 
the  cities  have  been  so  well  preserved  by  ihe  env<'l()j)inii;  layers  of 
ashes,  nnid,  and  lava  thai  by  di";  nii  ••  dow  n  to  the  site  of  Pompeii 
we  sec  how    llie  slH'cts  wei'c  ])ave(l,   how   the  houses  and  shops 


202 


K<  (M  \\     III 


FHoM    VKSPASIAV    Tn    SKI'TIMH 


;|\  KHT^ 


203 


were  Imilt  ami  di-roraUd,  and  \\n\\  \\w  < oiiinion  |»(n|tl('  lived  and 
amused  thiiiiseives. 

389.  Domitian  is  Like  Tiberius.    The  cliaracUr  and  r(i<.ni 

of  Domitian,  who  succiMMlcd  !ii;>  hrotlicr  Tifns  (o  the  throni'  in 
A.  D.  SI,  eamioi  fail  to  leiiiind  n^  ol  Tiljiiiu.s.  As  Wlleius 
PaleiTuius  tlmuuiil  'I'IIm-iiiin  alni(»sl   more  than  human,  so  the 

jtoels  ^larlial  and 
Statins  |K)rtiay  Domi- 
tian a.^  godlike.  To 
Tacitus  and  PHnv,  on 
the  other  hand,  Domi- 
tian is  on!v  a  !)lood- 
ihi?--*^-  t\  rant,  as  is  Ti- 
Ijeiiu^  ill  the  pa^^es  ol" 
'i'aeitus.  Domitian  was 
stern  and  resii-\cd  as 
Tioeriiis  had  Inrn,  and 
.-.hill  iiiui.^cU  ujf  in  hi-. 
|)ida(  (■  a>  d'iherius  had 
eiit  hiiiiseU'  nil"  tVoiii  the 
v\orld  on  the  ishinti  of 
r'a]»ri.  Pn}\h  emjH'f(»[> 
1(  h  ihe  iesj)oii^if>ilily 
of  their  position,  and  <hd  their  hot  to  nphnhi  reh^aon  and  ])uhHe 
morality.  I^ach  ri'i;;'n  fall  inl«»  two  [»ei-iods.  In  the  case  of 
Tiberius  llie  rise  nf  Sejanii>  niar!v  .  ih*-  diviihii'/  hue.  In  the 
reign  of  Domitian  it  i.>  the  ichehion  •>.  tiie  ;:()\einor  of  Upper 
Germany.     In  the  first  period  th*  nine  h  to  praise   in    each 

emperor.     In  the  .second  period  both  of  them  fell  the  victims  of 
their  owri  jealou>  suspicion^,  and  dehitioii  ran  riot. 

390.  His  Efforts  to  Improve  Public  Morals.  In  his 
earnest  etlort-  to  improxi-  the  morals  of  the  people,  Domitian 
sought  to  reform  the  theatre,  he  (-nforced  the  laws  which  wen- 
intended  to  j)'oteet  the  fiiiritv  f)f  family  life,  he  restricted  the 
introduetion  of  Oriental  reh;',toii^,  he  watclied  o\«r  the  eoints  ol 


\    Ml)'^^  K  .    Mlin\  I  \- 


I 


law,   and    used    his  aiithoi-ity   a>   censor    to    ex<-lnde    unwcirthy 
members  from  tlie  ^eiiat.'. 

391.  Domitian  Rejects  the  Theory  of  the  Dyarchy.  He 
broke  conn)letely  with  llie  theory  of  the  dyarchy  that  the  prince 
and  the  -enate  jointly  I'uled  the  state.  He  was  an  autocrat  by 
instinct,  and  consistently  followed  tlie  j^olicy  of  kee[)ing  the  .su- 
preme j)OWer  entirely  in  hi>  owu  hands.  With  this  j)urpose  in 
mind  he  liad  himsel.  made  <  i*nsor  for  life,  solely  for  tlie  purpose 
of  controlling'  the  apj)ointnieni  of  senators.  In  thi.>  way  he  was 
able  to  de,i;'radc  his  ene:nies  and  to  fill  th<'  senate  with  lii.s  sup- 
[•orters.  He  asserted  the  ri^^ht  also  of  sittino;  in  jud^^ment  on 
senators  charj.^cd  with  ea;)i!.d  ollVnse-.  and  with  the  help  of  his 
{Iddfon.s  found  it  not  dilh^-nh  to  jnit  out  of  tlie  way  any  .senator 
who  ai'oused  liis  suspicions.  ^^  e  ha\('  had  occasion  to  notice 
the  similarity  of  Ins  chaiactci-  and  rei>.»:n  to  that  of  Tit)erius.  In 
one  important  ])arlicn!ar  their  ])olicies  diilVrcd.  Tiberius,  and 
for  that  matter  Xeio  loo,  riilccl  in  lap^'c  measure  tlirou^ii  minis- 
ters Domitian  held  the  i'ei!i  of  ijoverninent  firmly  in  his  own 
hands,  and  tolerated  no  fa  .oriies  at  court. 

392.  His  Foreign  Policy  Conservative.  His  foreiij^n  policy 
was  that  of  .Vu'^ustus.  It  !.iv  in  ^tren!j:lhcnin(i;  the;  frontier  de- 
fenses, and  in  not  advancin'f  tlie  limits  of  tlie  empire.  Ihi  con- 
tinued the  work  upon  a  norlheiii  liiK-  of  defensi',  which,  when 
com|)leted  by  Hadrian  in  the  next  ci'iitury,  extended  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhiiic  to  tliai  of  the  Danube.  It  consisted  of  a 
wall  of  earth  or  of  stone  with  a  ditch  in  front  of  it,  and  was  pro- 
tected bv  fortresses  at  int(M'val-  of  nine  or  ten  miles.  With  the 
Daelans  to  the  north  of  the  Danulx'  who  crosse(l  the  river  and 
mvaded  Roman  territory  he  uuulv  a  humiliating;  peace  by  send- 
ing]; presents  annually  to  their  kinfj;  Decebalus.  In  Britain 
Domitian's  lieuti-nant  .Vc^ricola  extended  the  frontier  to  the 
acstiiaries  of  the  Tlvde  and  the  Forth,  and  built  across  the 
island  between  tliese  points  a  wall  of  defense.  Domitian  fell 
i!i  \  I).  '.)(►  the  vi<-tim  of  a  cons|)iracv  orixanized  by  his  wife 
Domilia. 


202 


KdMw   iiismia' 


FROM    VKSPASIAM    TO    .SEPTIMITS    SEVKRIS 


203 


were  built  and  (Iccoruitt 1,  and  how  tlir  conitiion  |H:o|)lt'  lived  and 
amused  theniseives. 

389.  Domitian  is  Like  Tiberius.  The  character  and  rei^ni 
of  Domitian,  who  succeeded  his  brother  Titu.s  to  the  throne  in 
A.  D.  81,  cannot  fail  to  remind  us  of  Tiberius.  As  Velleius 
Paterculus  thouglit  Tiberius  almost  more  tlian  human,  so  the 

|>oeLs  Martial  and 
Statins  j>orlray  Domi- 
tian as  godlike.  To 
Tacitus  and  Pliny,  on 
the  other  hand,  Domi- 
tian is  only  a  l)lood- 
t hirst V  tyrant,  as  is  Ti- 
be r ins  in  the  pages  of 
'i'acitus.  Domitian  was 
stern  and  reserved  as 
'^riberius  had  been,  and 
shut  himself  up  in  his 
])alare  as  Tiberius  had 
cut  himself  oil'  from  the 
world  on  the  island  of 
Capri.  Both  emperors 
felt  the  responsibility 
of  their  i)osition,  and  did  their  lust  to  uphoKl  religion  and  i)ublic 
morality.  Each  reign  falls  into  two  [K-riods.  In  the  case  of 
Tiberius  the  rise  of  Sejanus  marks  the  ilividing  line.  In  the 
reign  of  Domitian  it  is  the  rel)ellion  of  the  governor  of  Up[)er 
Germany.  In  the  first  |)eriod  tliere  is  much  to  praise  in  each 
emperor.  In  the  second  period  both  of  them  fell  the  victims  of 
their  own  jealous  suspicions,  ;ind  delation  ran  riot. 

390.  His  Efforts  to  Improve  Public  Morals.  In  his 
earnest  efforts  to  improve  the  morals  of  the  people,  Domitian 
sought  to  reform  tlie  theatre,  he  enforced  the  laws  which  were 
intended  to  protect  the  [»nrity  of  family  life,  he  restricted  the 
introduction  of  Oriental  reliirion>,  he  watched  over  the  courts  of 


A   MOSAIC.    SMO\VI\<J    PAltltOTS 


law,   and   used  his  authority  as  censor  to   exclude    unworthy 
members  from  the  senate. 

391.  Domitian  Rejects  the  Theory  of  the  Dyarchy.  He 
broke  completely  with  the  theory  of  the  dyarchy  that  the  prince 
and  the  senate  jointly  ruled  the  state.  He  was  an  autocrat  by 
instinct,  and  consistently  followed  tlie  policy  of  keeping  the  su- 
preme power  entirely  in  his  own  hands.  With  this  purpose  in 
mind  he  had  Iiimseli'  made  censor  for  life,  solely  for  the  purpose 
of  controlling  tlie  appointment  of  senat(jrs.  In  this  way  he  was 
able  to  degrade  liis  enemies  and  to  fill  the  senate  w^ith  his  sup- 
porters. He  asserted  the  right  also  of  sitting  in  judgment  on 
senators  charged  with  capital  offcMiscs,  and  with  the  help  of  his 
delators  found  it  not  difficult  to  put  out  of  the  way  any  senator 
who  aroused  his  suspicions.  We  have  had  occasion  to  notice 
the  similaritv  of  his  character  and  rei'j^n  to  that  of  Tiberius.  In 
one  important  particular  their  policies  differed.  Tiberius,  and 
for  that  matter  Xcro  too,  ruled  in  large  measure  through  minis- 
ters. Domitian  held  tlu^  reins  of  government  firmly  in  his  own 
hands,  and  tolerated  no  favorites  at  court, 

392.  His  Foreign  Policy  Conservative.  His  foreign  policy 
was  that  of  Au'^ustus.  It  lay  in  strengthening  the  frontier  de- 
fenses, and  in  not  advancin*!;  the  limits  of  the  empire.  He  con- 
tinued tlie  work  upon  a  nortlu'ru  line  of  defense,  which,  when 
completed  by  Hadrian  in  the  next  century,  extended  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine  to  that  of  tlie  Danube.  It  consisted  of  a 
wall  of  earth  or  of  stone  with  a  ditch  in  front  of  it,  and  was  pro- 
tected by  fortresses  at  intervals  of  nine  or  ten  miles.  With  the 
Dacians  to  the  north  of  the  Danube  who  crossed  the  river  and 
invaded  Roman  territory  lie  made  a  humiliating  peace  by  send- 
ing presents  annually  to  their  king  Deccbalus.  In  Britain 
Domitian's  lieutenant  Agricola  extended  the  frontier  to  the 
acstuarics  of  the  Clyde  and  the  Forth,  and  built  across  the 
island  betw^een  tliese  points  a  wall  of  defense.  Domitian  fell 
in  A.  D.  90  the  victim  of  a  c(Mispiracy  organized  by  his  wife 
Domitia. 


\ 


204 


!A.\     lilsroKY 


393.  Literature:  Pliny  the  Elder,  A.  D.  23-79.  Prose 
literature  of  the  Fhivian  I'liiiH-rors  is  P/prfsciilt'd  l>y  thr  works 
of  Pliny  the  Elder  and  (^linlilian.  Pliny'^  hock,  die  Xatnral 
Ilistary,  is  tigreat  eiuycIoiH'diaot'  scienliliri'act  and  fiction  hased 
upon  his  observation  and  readin^^  inul  reminds  one  a  little  ol 
Varro's  treatises.  It  deals  with  ireoi^raphy,  anthro|)olof]ry, 
zo(Jlogy,  botany,  and  mineralogy.  A  |)atlielic  interest  attaches 
to  his  death,  since  it  occurred  in  A.  I).  71)  while  he  was  investi- 
gating; the  cause  and  cireumstanees  of  the  eruption  of  Vesuvius. 

394.  Quintilian,A.  D.35-95.  Quintillan  wa.  ;i  Spaniard, 
and,  like  his  fellow-conn trvman  SencM-a,  a  tutor  ;it  court.  In 
his  work  On  thr  Tniinnitj  ,>j  an  Onitor,  he  de.eribes  a  complete 
system  of  education  for  one  who  wishes  lo  entc  public  life. 
His  book  is  an  aihnirable  tnnti^e  on  rliet^.rie.  and  the  literary 
criticism  which  it  contains  is  excellent,  lie  tried  to  bring  the 
style  of  Cicero  into  lavor  a^ain,  l)nt  without  success. 

395.  Silius  Italicus,  A.  D.  25-101,  and  Statius,  40-96. 

The  epic  poetry  of  Uie  ])eriod  deserve  s  mention,  rather  because 
it  shows  the  imitative  tenden«y  »)f  the  times,  than  for  its  own 
merits.  Both  Silius  Italieus  and  Statins  liave  imitated  Vergil  as 
.slavishly  as  rjie;in  did,  hnl  their  epi*-  poems  lack  the  occasional 
fla.shes  of  ^-eniiis  which  Luean's  work  shows,  and  are  inex- 
pressibly dull  and  monotonous.  Statius's  S/lrar,  which  an-  brief 
poems  on  Domitian's  consulship,  on  the  birthday  or  the  death  of 
a  friend,  and  similar  subjects,  iiw  much  more  readal)le. 

396.  Martial,  A.  D.  40-102  or  104.  The  best  known 
poet  of  the  period  is  Martial,  who  left  behind  him  fifteen  books 
of  Epigrams.  Some  of  th.  .<■  poems  contain  tw  o  verses  only  and 
are  written  as  if  tliey  were  intended  to  aceom})any  presents- 
sent  at  the  festival  of  the  Satmiialia,  but  the  majority  of  them 
are  like  our  modern  epiicrams,  brief  eomj)osilions  in  verse  ex- 
pressing some  delicate  or  in;^^'nious  lhoujj;ht.  Martial  is  a 
writer  of  considerable  talent,  and  his  poems  o-ivr  us  a  very 
interesting,  if  somewhat  unpleasani,  picture  of  the  times.  His 
poetry,  Hke  that  of  Statius  and  Silius  l!:di<us,  is  full  of  .servile 
eulogy  of  Domitian. 


FRO\'   VESPASIAN    TO    SP:PTIM1US   SEVERUS 


205 


397.  Josephus,  A.  D.  37- about  100.  In  addition  to  these 
Latin  writers  two  foreigners,  whose  works  are  in  (rreek,  should 
be  mentioned,  l)ecause  thev  lived  for  a  time  at  Rome,  and  dealt 
in  some  measure  with  Roman  subjects.  One  of  these  men  is  the 
Jewish  historian  Flavins  Josephus,  whose  l[iMorij(>]  the  Jewish 
War  and  treatise  on  .Jcir'ish  Aniiqniiles  give  ns  an  account  of 
the  Rom.'in  government  of  Judiea  and  of  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem. After  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  Jo.se}>hus  accom[)anied  Titus 
to  Rome,  and  was  ti-eated  with  great  consideration  by  Vespasian, 
Titus,  and  Domitian. 

398.  Plutarch,  A.  D.  46  -  about  120.  Plutarch,  wliose 
biographies  of  great  Tireek  and  Roman  statesmen,  known  as  the 
Pdnilld  Lircs,  have  held  a.  well-deserved  place  in  ])ublic  esteem, 
wiis  in  Rome  IV)r  a  time  during  the  reign  of  Vespasian  and  much 
respected  at  court,  but  the  greater  part  of  his  life  was  spent  in  his 
native  country,  Hoeotia. 

399.  The  Revival  of  the  Dyarchy  under  Nerva,  A.  D. 
96  -  98.  Tli««  senate  showed  its  hatred  of  Domitian  after  Iiis 
death  l)v  destroying  his  statues,  by  erasing  his  name  from  public 
monuments,  and  by  forbidding  the  peo])le  to  ])Ut  on  mourning. 
His  sueeessor  Xeivji  was  i)ick(Ml  out  by  the  senat(%  and  for  a  short 
tii.n  again  the  state  was  under  the  joint  rule  of  the  emperor  and 
the  senate.  Trials  for  treason  were  supi)ressed,  exiles  were 
recalled,  and,  as  Tacitus  puts  it,  Nerva  "harmonized  things 
formerly  incompatible,  sovereignty  and  freedom." 

400.  Relief  for  the  Poor.  The  most  interesting  and  im^por- 
tant  institution  whieli  he  estal)lished  was  tlie  rum  alirnentorum, 
or  system  of  relief  for  the  poor  of  Italy.  He  hoped  by  means  of 
it  to  prevent  the  free  population  of  Italy  from  disappearing  alto- 
gether. His  plan  was  to  appropriate  money  to  Italian  towns, 
from  the  interest  of  which  gratuities  in  the  form  of  money  or 
grain  were  given  each  month  to  a  selected  number  of  children 
of  free  birtli.  The  system  was  developed  in  an  elaborate  way 
by  Xt^rva's  successors,  and  many  Italian  children  were  sup- 
port^'d  by  tlie  government. 


206 


K(*MA\     IllSlOin 


FROM    \  EfcJFAblAN   TO    SEPTnilUS   SEVERI'S 


207 


401.  Trajan  Made  Emperor  in  A.  D.  98.  Hut  Xiivn  wius 
not  d  man  of  nnich  j)}iv>l(;il  slivii;!:tli  or  mental  vij/or,  and  tVi'IiiiL' 
the  cart's  i)\'  state  to.,  irrcat  for  him,  in  v.  d.  97  \iv  adopted  as  his 
SOD  and  associate  in  the  governiiient  Trajan,  tlic  <rov(rnor  of 

rplHT  (icriiiany;  and, 
on    Xerva's  dca'  !i    in 
tlic    followin^^   year, 
Trajan  succcecJcd  him. 
402.  He  Shows  Con- 
sideration for  the 
Sena  t e .    T  r  a  j  a  n  was 
first  of  all  a  sohHer,  and 
spent  a  hir^^e  part  of  liis 
reii::n   fi^^litinji;  the  ene- 
mies  of  ]{  ome.      At 
home    he   treated   the 
senate  with   considera- 
tion, and   carefully  ob- 
serv('<l  the  fiction  of  the 
dual   control  of   affairs 
\)\  the  enijK'ror  and  the 
senate.      In  fact,  during" 
his  })rolonj^^'d  al.sences 
from  Home,  the  senate 
acquired  some  importance  as  a  legishitive  body. 

403.  Wars  with  the  Dacians,  A.D.  101  - 102  and  104  - 106. 
In  dealing  with  foreign  affairs  he  broke  with  Augustus's  policy 
of  maintaining  the  enqiire  intact  without  advancing  ilie  frontier- 
In  liis  first  great  camj.aign,  that  against  the  Dacians,  his  object 
may  not  liave  l»een  to  extend  tlie  limits  of  Roman  territory,  but 
rather  to  jjrotect  tlie  northeastern  frontier.  The  peo})le  of 
Dacia,  which  ((»rresj)oiulc'(i  nearly  with  modern  Rouinania  and 
southeastern  Hungary,  had  given  the  liomans  trouble  in  Domit- 
ian's  reign.  Xow  they  seemed  likely  to  develop  into  a  strong, 
united  pec.ple,  an<I  Trajan  may  well  hav(«  felt  that  they  threatened 
the  security  of  the  [.rovinc  es  t(.  the  south  of  the  Danube.     At  all 


TRAJAN 


1 


events  he  set  out  from  Rome  in  101  to  re<hice  them  to  submission. 
The  difficulties  of  the  ex[)editioii  were  tremendous.  The  sol- 
diers had  to  cross  the  Danube  on  a  l)ridge  of  boats,  to  cut  their 
way  through  virgin  forests,  and  to  dislodge  the  enemy  from  one 
mountain  fastness  after  anotlier.  The  Dacians,  too,  fought 
desperately  and  were  l)rilliantly  led  hy  Decebalus.  But  Trajan 
at  last  forced  his  way  through  the  country  to  the  Dacian  capital, 
and  1  )acia  yielded  and  became  a  dep(Mid(»nt  state  in  the  year  102. 
But  lier  submission  was  of  short  duration.  Scarcely  had  Trajan 
withdrawn  from  the  country,  Iw^fore  the  people  began  collecting 
an  army  and  rebuilding  their  forti-ess(\s.  The  emperor  took 
up  arms  against  them  once  more,  subdued  the  country  com- 
j)letely,  and  made  it  a  province,  joining  it  to  Roman  territory  by 
a  great  stone  bridge  across  the  1  )anube  near  D robe tae,  the  modern 
Turiui  Severin  in  Roumania. 

404.  War  with  Parthia,  A.  D.  113 -  117.  Tlie  seconrl  great 
military  enterprise'  of  Trajan  was  his  war  with  the  Parthians. 
Parthia  was  the  traditional  cnrmy  of  Rome,  and  the  only  great 
civilized  slate  whicli  maintained  its  independence.  The  bone 
of  contention  between  the  two  countries  was  the  control  of  Ar- 
menia, just  as  the  control  of  Bithynia  had  been  the  principal 
fjuestion  at  issue  between  the  Rotnans  and  Mithri(hites  two  cen- 
turies earlier.  The  dispute  had  been  settled  in  Nero's  reign  by 
a  compromise  under  which  tlie  king  of  Armenia  was  nominated 
by  Parthia,  but  rect'ived  his  crown  from  the  Roman  emperor. 
In  Trajan's  reign  the  Armenian  throne  became  vacant,  Jind  the 
king  of  Parthia  overthn-w  the  successor  to  whom  the  Roman 
emperor  had  given  the  crown.  Tiiis  action  of  the  Parthians  led 
to  a  hmg  war  in  which  Trajan  traversiMl  Mesopotamia  and 
Assvria,  and  adv^anced  almost  to  llie  Persian  Gulf. 

405.  The  Results  of  the  War.  Mesopotamia,  Armenia, 
and  Assyria  he  niadi^  Roman  provinces,  and  in  Ctesiphon,  the 
capitid  of  Parthia,  the  Parthian  crown  was  placed  upon  the  head 
of  Parthamaspates,  the  son  of  the  Parthian  king,  and  the  new 
monarch  acknowledged  liis  deyiendcmce  on  Rome.  Trajan  even 
dreamed  of  invading  India,  as  Alexander  had  done,  but  the  up- 


206 


ii<»\i\\    ifisi(.in 


ilk'OM    \i:'-;iv\m\\     I.,    sl.i'l  iMlls    SKVKKI  s 


20: 


401.  Trajan  Made  Emperor  in  A.  D.  98.  liiii  Xc  rv!i  was 
not  a  man  of  nmrli  [.!iy>i<al  ^trni; 'lIi  or  menial  \  i^or,  and  fccliii;^ 
the  cans  of  st.iir  loo  u-nal  for  liim,  in  \.  d.  !)7  he  aJopii'ii  as  his 
SOD  and   a.v.o(  iaU-   in    the  liovmnnrnt   Trai.-m,  the  irovrrnor  of 

I  i']M  I-   <  ifi-many ;    an<l, 
on    \rr\;r>  dvn  •  U    in 
(hf    foil  o\\  i  n  i';   yrar, 
Trajnn  sncct'cdcd  him. 
402.  He  Shows  Con- 
sideration for  the 
Senate.    T  raja  n  was 
first  of  all  a  sohhrr,  and 
spcnl  a  ]:\]y^i-  |)art  of  his 
rfM"tt    fiuhiino;   tlic  cnc- 
111  i  r  >  of  Ho  m  i".     A  t 
h(»nn     he   lrcatc(l    the 
scnah'   wilh    considrra- 
tion,  .-Mid    rai'rfulh-  oL- 
scrx  <  .  1  \\\i-  iidioii  of  tlic 
ihi;il    c-on(r(»l  of    alf;tir^ 
hy  fhr  cmptioi-  and  llir 
stiiaie.      In  fact,  dnrin;.^ 
his  [)rolon<j,«'d  aKsrnccs 
fr(tin    litjnic,  the  senate 
ncf|uired  soim    importance  ;is  a   Icia.^hitive  l>od\'. 

403.  Wars  with  the  Daciaiis,  A.D.  101  - 102  and  104  - 106. 

In  (h-alin^'  with  forcii^ni  alfaiis  he  lireilvc  with  Auj^nislu^'s  policy 
of  maintainint:  theemphe  ititaet  willK.nl  a<lvan<-in<i:  the  frontier- 
In  his  first  meal  <ampaif:n.  that  ai:;iin>t  tlie  D.icians,  hi>  ohject 
may  not  have  hi-en  to  extend  the  hmits  of  iioman  territory,  hiit 
rather  t(»  jiroleet  the  norllieastern  frontier.  The  [Jcople  of 
Dacia,  whi(  h  <  nrrespond.-d  nearly  with  modern  Houmania  and 
soiitlieastern  Ilnnuary,  had  in\fn  the  Itomatrs  troni)h-  in  Domit- 
ian's  rei;j:iL  Now  ih«  ^  .  -  -.rd  likely  to  deveL.p  into  a  stroni;, 
nnited  people,  ;,iid  'I'riij.iM  ;.,;iy  well  haw  felt  tli;it  lli»  y  threatened 
the  seenrily  of  tin    pn.\i.i<  .     |,,  the  >onth  of  the  Damil.e.      At  all 


TR.\JAX 


( 


1 


events  he  set  out  f?-om  Home  in  101  to  i-e<Incethem  to  submission. 
The  (hdicnllies  of  the  e\pe(lilion  were  tremendons.  The  sol- 
diers had  to  cross  llie  Damihe  on  a  Inid^'eof  boats,  to  cut  tlieir 
wa\'  thronirh  virti'in  foi'esls,  and  to  dislodiTt'  the  enemv  from  one 
mountain  fastness  after  anothei".  I'lie  Daeians,  too,  fought 
(lesi)erately  and  w<'r«'  brilliantly  le(l  by  Deeebalus.  But  Tnijan 
at  last  forced  his  w;iy  throuLdi  the  eoinitry  to  the  Dacian  capital, 
and  1  )a(  la  yii'lde(|  and  became  a  tlepentlenf  state  iji  the  year  102. 
Hut  her  submission  was  of  sh<»i-t  dination.  Scarcely  had  Trajan 
withdrawn  from  the  country,  beh)re  the  people  bci^an  collecting 
an  army  and  rebuilding-  their  fortresses.  The  emperor  took 
up  arms  against  them  once  nioi'c,  snlxlued  the  country  com- 
pletely, and  ma<le  it  a.  pi-o\ince,  joinin;^  it  lo  Homan  territory  by 
a  gnat  stone  bridge  aero-,>  the  I  )annbe  near  1  )robetae,  the  modern 
'I'urnu  Siwci'in  in    Honni;inia. 

404.  War  with  Parthia,  A.  D.  113  -  117.  'ilie  second  great 
military  enterprise  of  Trajnn  was  his  war  with  the  Harlhians. 
Harthia  was  the  traditional  ene;;iy  of  Home,  and  the  only  great 
civilized  state  whi<'h  maintained  its  independence.  The  bone 
of  contention  belw*'  11  l!ic  two  countries  was  the  control  of  Ar- 
menia, just  as  tlie  control  of  Hilhynia  had  been  tlie  principal 
(jueslion  at  issue  biMwccn  the  Homan-  and  ^^ith^idates  two  cen- 
turies r'arlier.  The  disjuUe  had  been  setllcil  in  Xero's  reign  by 
a  eomj>romise  under  \\lii<-h  I  he  king  of  Armenia  was  nominated 
by  Harthia,  but  recei\cd  his  <a-ow  n  from  tlie  Homan  (MupcTor. 
In  Trajan's  reign  the  Armenian  throne  beeanu;  vacant,  and  the 
king  of  Harthia  oxcrlhi-cw  the  successor  lo  whom  the  Iioman 
emperor  had  given  tlie  crown.  This  action  of  the  Harthians  led 
to  a  long  war  in  which  Trajan  lra\(a'S(>d  Mesopotamia  and 
A.ssvria,  and  Mflvanced  almost  to  ihe  Hersian  ^lulf. 

405.  The  Results  of  the  War.  Mesopotamia,  Armenia^ 
and  .\ssyria  he  made  Homan  |)ro\inces,  and  in  ('t(\siphon,  the 
ca])ital  of  Harthia,  tlu^  Harlhian  crown  was  placed  upon  the  head 
of  Harlhamas|)atcs,  the  sofi  of  the  Harlhian  king,  and  the  new 
monarch  acknowledged  his  dcpcndcMicc  on  Home.  Trajan  even 
dreamed  of  invading  India,  as  Alexander  had  «lone,  l>ut  the  up- 


2()s 


ROM  AM    niSTORV 


risings  in  the  country  beliiiid  him  rrcallcd  him  from  this  foolish 
enteqjrise.  He  hud  pusheii  the  ta>fi*ni  hmits  of  Romuii  territory 
to  the  Tigris,  and  hud  secured  u  foothold  even  beyond  this 
river,  but  liis  new  eustern  empire  wus  u  liouse  of  cards,  and  his 
successor  within  a  year  of  Trajan's  death  surrendered  the  ter- 
ritory beyond  the  Euphrates,  and  adojJted  again  the  eastern 
frontier  which  Augustus  liad  estabUshed.  Trajan  died  in  A.  D. 
117  on  his  way  back  to  Ronu;. 

406.  Trajan's  Interest  in  the  Provinces.  His  accpiaint- 
ance  with  the  provinces  made  him  take  a  Hvely  interest  in  their 
welfare.  This  fact  comes  out  clearly  in  his  corresp(»ndence  with 
Pliny,  the  governor  of  Bilhynia.  Pliny  <(»nsults  the  em})er()r 
upon  all  sorts  of  local  matters  in  his  province.  He  asks  him, 
for  instance,  if  the  cons! ruction  of  ])nblic  baths  at  Prusa  and 
of  an  aepieduct  at  Sinoj>,'  may  l»c  anlliori/ed,  and  if  a  com- 
pjuiy  of  firemen  may  be  allowed  at  Xicomedia. 

407.  The  Government  and  the  Christians.  The  most 
celebrated  letters  in  the  eorrcspomleiMM'  are  one  which  Pliny 
wrote  to  jisk  how  he  slionld  treat  the  aeensations  ma»le  atrainst 
the  Christians  and  'I'raian's  answci*.  To  Plin\'s  in(|nir\'  ihe 
eni|>eror  re[>lied:  "The  Cjirislians  ought   not  to  be  sought  out; 

if  thev  are  brou-dit  liefore  \(ni  and  <  (.ii\  i(  lr<|,  the\  ouilht  \(*  be 
punished,  pntviled  that  he  who  denies  that  he  is  a  <  'hrislian,  and 
proves  this  by  making  supplicati<jn  to  (»nr  gods,  ln)Wever  nuich 
he  may  ha\(>  Ihmmi  under  suspicion  in  llie  past,  shall  secure  pardon 
on  re})eutanee."  This  decision  expresses  «  learly  the  [>olic\  of 
thelloniJin  govermnent  in  this  mailer.  ( 'hristiaiiitv  is  an  ollVnse 
against  the  state  if  it  is  <arried  to  the  point  of  denying  the 
divinity  of  tlie  emperor. 

408.  Trajan's  Public  Improvements.  Trajan  s})ent  a 
great  deal  of  monty  on  j)ublie  works  in  Italy  and  Rome.  He 
constructed  a  road  through  the  I'online  marshes,  and  improved 
the  harbor  at  Ostia.  A  new  a((ueduct  was  brouglit  into  Rome, 
two  public  baths  were  built,  and  a  magnificent  forum  was 
constructed  to  unite  the  (»ld  Forum  with  the  Campus  Martins. 
The  most  conspicntais  monument  in  Trajan\s  Forum  was  the 


t  !     Bomau  Territory  «t  Ctekir'i  de«tb. 

ta^»*|      Pro^incti  added  befor*  ieatb  of  Aafuatae     A.D.  U 


ProTincci  added  up  (o  A.D.  US. 


FROM    VESPASIAN   To  SKPTIMITS   SEVEIUJS 


200 


1 


y 


column  of  Trajan,  which  still  stands  in  a  perfect  stat(^  of  preser- 
vation. It  rises  to  a  height  of  ninety-six  feet,  and  records  in  a 
series  of  pictures,  cut  in  relief,  and  runninj^'  in  a  s|)iral  hand  from 
the  bottom  to  tlie  top  of  the  column,  the  exploits  of  the  Roman 
army  in  Dacia.  The  reliefs  sliow  us,  for  instance,  Roman  troops 
setting  fire  to  a  town,  and  the  Daeian  king  submitting  to  Trajan, 
and  they  give  us  invaluable  information  concerning  the  equip- 
ment of  a  Roman  soldier  in  the  second  century. 

409.  Literary  History:  Juvenal,  (about)  A.  D.  60  -  140. 
Juvenal,  whos(^  literary  activity  falls  in  the  reigns  of  Trajan 
and  his  successor,  was  the  last  of  the  great  Roman  satirists. 
Ilis  themes,  like  those  of  his  predecessors,  arc  the  vices  and 
till'  weaknesses  of  the  people  about  him,  the  pride  of  w^ealth, 
the  vanity  of  human  wishes,  the  wilcv',  of  a  fortune  hunter, 
the  hard  life  of  a  man  of  letters,'and  kindred  subjects.  In  the 
realistic  pictures  of  ccmtemporary  life  which  he  paints,  all  forms 
of  vice  and  folly,  however  repugnant  they  maybe  to  us,  are  un- 
sparingly ]>ort  rayed. 

410.  Tacitus,  A.  D.  55-120.  Tacitus  paints  life  at  Rome 
in  the  s;une  dark  colors.  Next  to  Livy  he  is  the  greatest  Roman 
historian,  although  in  matter  and  manner  he  is  as  far  removed 
from  his  predecessor  as  he  well  could  be.  His  minor  works  are 
a  Diahgnr  on  Orafnr.s-,  the  Agrirola,  and  the  Gcrmamj.  In  the 
first-mentioned  book  he  gives  the  reasons  for  the  decay  of  oratory. 
In  his  Agriroh  he  sketches  the  life  of  Ins  father-in-law,  who  was 
for  several  y^'ars  connnander  in  Britain.  The  Grrmmiy  gives 
us  a  brief  account  of  the  country  and  peoples  of  northern  Europe. 
His  most  serious  work,  however,  was  his  history  of  the  empire 
from  tlie  death  of  Augustus  to  tlie  deatli  of  Domitian.  The  first 
part  of  this  work,  covering  the  years  from  A.  D.  14  to  68,  and 
known  as  the  Arnutls',  contained  origimdly  sixteen  books,  and  the 
second  i)art,  the  UiMories,  was  divided  into  fourteen  books. 
About  half  of  the  entire  treatise  has  survived.  The  conciseness, 
vigor,  and  poetic  coloring  of  his  narrative  carry  such  conviction 
to  the  reader's  mind  that  the  estimates  which  he  put  upon  the 
leading  men  of  his  time  have  been  the  accej^ed  judgment  of  the 


210 


R(»\1V\    HISTORY 


world;  but  thov  iirv  ottni  lalsr  (  stinuilcs,  Ix^'aiisc  Taritus  was  a 
man  of  stron*,^  jh  rsonal  and  political  prcjiidict's,  whivh  arc  re- 
flected in  his  writing. 

411.  Pliny  the  Younger,  A.  D,  62 -113.  Wr  have  had 
occasion  already  to  s])eak  of  Pliny's  letlcrs  to  Trajan.  Besides 
the  correspondence  with  Trajan  there  are  nine  other  books  (»f 
epistles,  full  of  chatty  information  about  peopl.^  and  thin<!;s  al 
Rome.  Juvenal  finds  nothing  to  |)raise,  IMiiiy  little  to  biaine. 
His  letters  throw  a  deal  of  light  npon  his  times,  but  he  liad  an 

eye  to  publication,  ami  consecjuenlly  lie  <1 >  ii(»t  express  liiinself 

so  unreservedly  aboiit  [)eople  and  llieir  doings  as  CicTo  i\in:'s  m 
his  corresj)ondence. 

412.  Hadrian  Becomes  Emperor  in  A.  D.  117.  Tlie 
right  of  tlie  emperor  to  nominate  his  successor,  was  so  fully 
recognized  by  Trajan's  lime  that,  althougli  lie  had  not  formally 
associated  anv  one  with  liiin  in  die  government,  the  lefter  which 
he  sent  from  his  deathbed  to  Hadrian,  the  governor  of  Syria, 
informing  him  thai  he  liad  ado[>ted  him  as  liis  heir,  was  accepted 
as  sufficient  warrant  by  die  senate  iV.r  elevating  Iliuirian   to  the 

throne. 

413.  His  Character.  'I'he  new  emperor  was  .1  man  of  (piick 
and  restless  mind  and  of  wide  sympa lines  and  interests.  It  has 
been  remarked  that  in  his  bnsl>  'the  liead  is  bent  a  little,  as  if  to 
catch  everv  sound;  tlie  eves  and  moiilli  suggest  the  (juiekness 
ancUivelinessof  an  intellect  delcrmincd  that  nolhing  shall  escap.- 
it."  lie  was  liked  hy  the  soldiers  and  the  coimnon  people  be- 
cause of  his  simple  life  and  his  interest  in  their  welfare,  but  the 
senators,  who  were  conservative  in  their  ideas,  were  hostile  to 
him  on  account  of  his  fondness  for  new  things. 

414.  He  Reforms  the  Civil  Administration.  His  reign 
is  im|)ortant  for  the  changes  wliich  hv  made  in  the  administration 
of  internal  affairs.  Among  other  tilings  the  civil  business  of 
the  irovernmeiit  was  carefully  divided  among  a  number  of  de- 
partments  or  bureaus,  and  williin  each  bureau  ofhcials  were 
gradc<l  in  a  fixed  order.  In  this  way  business  was  carried  on 
svstematically,  and  eacli  olhcial   was  held  rcsponsibli*  to  his  <,\i' 


FROM    VKSPASIAX   TO   SEFTLMIUS   SEVERUS 


211 


perior.  In  these  civil  ollices  Ila<lrian  em[>loyed  knights  almost 
exclusively.  This  change  of  course  cut  down  the  number  of 
im]K)rtant  j»osilions  open  to  senators,  and  limited  their  influence. 
415.  His  Judicial  Reforms.  To  lighten  his  duties  in  de- 
ciding cases  which  came  ])eforeliim  he  estalilished  a  consilium, 
or  board  of  advisers,  made  ui)  of  senators  and  knights  who  were 
experienced  in  the  law.     This  naturally  led  him  to  take  another 


HADRIAN 


stej)  toward  making  the  administration  of  justice  more  system- 
atic. I'nder  the  rejuiblic  and  early  empire  justice  had  been 
adimnistered  largely  by  the  praetor.  Each  praetor  on  taking 
ollice  at  the  Ix^ginning  of  the  year  published  the  maxims  of  law 
and  the  forms  of  procedure  by  which  he  would  be^governed 
throughout  Ins  year  of  ollice.  Tliis  edict  was  properly  called, 
therefore,  an  edidnm  pcrpduum,  or  standing  edict.     A  praetor 


210 


IJoM  W     III 


M.-n\l    VI.^1'\S1\N     !(»    SEl'TLMH  S    SEVEKIS 


211 


world;  but  tln^  aiv  <»tU'!i  lalM-  isliiii;ilr  -  l..T;n]sr  'rjicilus  u;is  n 
mail  i)f  stroni,^  jHi-Miiial  and  |M)litiral  |)rr|U(li(  i>,  ulii<h  arc  iv- 
fl(M'tiMl  ill  his  wriliiig. 

411.  Pliny  the  Younger,  A.  D.  62 -113.    W«    haw  had 

occasion  alrcadv  Im  <|)cak  of  Pliny's  IcMcrs  lo  Trajan.  Besides 
the  convspniidcnii'  \\  ilh 'I'rajaii  ihciv  arc  nine  odicr  hooks  i»l 
epistles,  full  of  chatty  iiilonnalion  ahoul  lH'o|>h-  and  ihin;.i:s  at 
Rome.  Juvenal  finds  iiotliin.Lr  to  j>raisc,  Tliny  little  to  hiaiiu  . 
His  letters  throw  a  deal  of  liirht  upnii  his  lime.,  hnt  he  had  an 
eye  lo  puhlicatinn.  and  c<.i\vr(|ncnll\'  lie  dues  not  c\pr«s>  liim>cll 
so  unresfrvcdlv  al»»iil  pe(.ph'  and  llieir  <l..ini:-  a>  Ciecn.  <l<»es  in 
llis  correspniidcncc. 

412.  Hadrian   Becomes   Emperor   in    A.   D.   117.      The 

right  of  the  (Miipcr.ir  to  nominate  \u>  sni-ces.M.i\  \\:\-~  so  Inlly 
rceot:niz(Ml  l.v  Trajan's  lime  lltal.  .ihlir.n«j-li  hv  had  n«»l  fnrmally 
ass«)cialed  any  (Uie  witli  him  in  the  :;-»\  n  nim-nt,  the  leller  \vlii<-li 
he  sent  from  his  ileathl)cd  to  Hadrian,  the  i^n.vcrnor  of  Syria, 
inforniin*:  him  that  lie  lia.l  adopiiMJ  him  as  his  luir,  was  m-cepted 
assudicicnt  warrant  hy  the  senate  for  ilevating   Hadrian    to  the 

throne. 

413.  His  Character.  'Vhr  neu  ( mi-eror  wa  .  a  man  of  (ini<-k 
and  restles-  mind  and  of  u  ide  s\mpalliie>  and  iiil' c  I  ..  Il  lia> 
been  n marked  thai  in  his  hn>i>  "the  head  is  hcnl  a  little,  as  if  t*» 

catch  ever\-  -oimd;  the  eve  and  !ii(»ulli  sni:-.Li-e.t  the  (juickiio^ 
ancl  livcline>->  e»f  an  inlelleel  deh  lunned  thai  nolhiri;^:  >hall  escape 
it."  He  was  liked  hy  ihc  >t.ldier>  and  the  c<.nmion  jM-ople  bc- 
eausc  of  lii>  ^imj»le  lih-  ami  liis  inlere-t  in  llu-ir  welfare,  hnl  the 
senators,  who  W(*re  conMi  \  ;it!  .e  in  their  ideas,  wciv  ho>liIe  lo 
him  on  account  of  his  fomliicN^  for  new  lhiii^>. 

414.  He  Reforms  the  Civil  Administration.  His  rei-n 
is  inijjortant  for  the  chani^e.^  which  he  made  in  the  administration 
of  internal  aihiir>.  Anioni:-  other  ihin.ii's  the  civil  Ijusiness  r\' 
tlie  'ntvermnent  w  ;i  .  arefnily  «llvided  amoiiii  a  nund)er  ol  de- 
partments or  hnreaiis,  and  widtin  cacli  hnrcaii  ollicials  wer<' 
cr-raded    in  a  (i\e«l  order.      Intiii-    wav  hii^iiM  ^  ^  v\  i  .   carricti   on 

svslemati<'all\ ,  and  eacli  odieial   wa>   held  rc>poii  .ihle  lo  his  su- 


perior, in  ihcM-  civil  (»(hccs  Hadrian  employ<'d  knio:hls  almost 
exchi..ively.  Thi.  chan-e  .»f  eonr>(«  cut  down  the  numlxM-  of 
imi»ortanl  po>ili<.ns  o[)en  to  senators,  and  limited  their  influence. 
415.  His  Judicial  Reforms.  To  li<;hlen  his  duties  in  (le- 
ading; e;,MS  whi.h  came  hehnvhim  he  c.^lahlishcd  a  rnusiUuin, 
or  hoard  of  adviser,  made  n[.  .-1  M-nators  and  kni(rhts  who  were 
exi>erienced  in  the  law.     This  naturally  led  him  to  take  another 


IIAhltlAN 


stei»  toward  makin-  the  administralion  of  justice  more  system- 
;iti<..  fnder  Ihe  ivpnl.he  .ind  i-arly  empire  justice  liad  l)een 
adininislere<l  largely  hv  ih.-  praetor.  Each  praetor  on  taking 
„Ilice  at  the  heoiiming  of  the  y-ar  puhlislied  the  nuixims  of  law 
j,i,d  the  h)rm>  of  ornecdnre  hy  which  he  would  be^governed 
'ihroughoui  In.  uat  Ml  olliee.  ^This  edict  was  properly  called, 
thereiorr,  :i.i   tdiviinn  prrjxluinii,  or  standing  edict.      A  praetor 


212 


|;(»M\\    lll-ioh^ 


lIMiM     \KSI'AS1V\     TO    SKI'TIMIl   s    SlAI.IilS 


:>i;{ 


(•(Hiiiiioiily  a«l(»i»l('il  iIm'  |>rt»'l:imali(iii  <»l'  lii>  j»n'<lt'(i-^  mi,  niakin<i 
such  addllioiis  to  il  an«l  cliaiiiiXN  in  it  a-  ^(citicd  !<•  Iiini  flcirahlr. 
Now  uiuk-r  iit>li-ii(iioii^  I'roni  lladi'iah  an  cininrnl  iuri.^l  naniiMl 
Salvius  Juliaiuis  hrou^lil  lo^icllicr  in  a  sinj^dc  cdicl  all  llic  [)rin- 
dples  an»l  fornix  |>ll!tli^ll^(i  Ia  prador^  and  *-nrnlc  ardilcs,  in  so 
far  as  llicv  wvw  >lill  in  tor*  <  .  l''roi.,  tlii>.  linic  forlli  die  praetor 
c;ould  niakf  no  <'lian,t!:'"s  in  l'\ii:al  nirtliod  ..  and  new  law  (ould  \n- 
inadf  ♦>nly  1>\  dir  cnipcroi-  or  the  ^tiiatc 

416.  His  Foreign  Policy.  Ihulrian  jj:av('  tlic  sanic  Mstctnatif 
attention  lo  tlie  nced.^  of  the  army.  An  improved  form  of  the 
|>lialan.\  was  ado|>ted;  new  kinds  of  armor  w  (  le  introdueed,  and 
hodie>  of  lroop>  were  trained  for  >pe<ial  pnr|)oses.  lint  Hadrian 
wa>  a  man  of  peaee.  lie  u'axc  up  at  once  the  pro\inee>  of 
Armtiiia,  MeMt]M»taFnia,  and  A>>yria,  and  reeou"ni/ed  die  km^i,' of 
l*arlhia  as  a  hiwful  monarch  He  spent  ten  year>  of  his  rci;.^n 
travellinu' thi-oULdi  tin-  p!-o\inee-^,  st»  thai  he  heeame  thoroii^'hly 
familial-  with  liii-ii-  needs,  and  no  one  of  In^  j)redeee>.>ors  l»i(»ke 
so  diort)Ujj;hly  with  the  repuMiean  theory  thai  the  i>rovince^ 
Were  snhonhnale  to  Italy,  an<l  \\«-re  to  he  ns<(l  for  the  ln-ncfit  of 

Italy. 

417.  His  Curiosity,  lli^  exiended  travels  ;^r;ive  .him  an 
()|»portunily  to  >ati>f\  thai  curiosity  which  hi>  fonlemporarle . 
noted  as  his  mo-t  ]>rt)nonnce<l  <haraetei  i.Ntic.  We  hear  (»f  him 
iroiiiLT  t(>  the  rioini  in  Asia  .Minor  where  the  f  decks  with  X<'iu(- 
plion  firM  'A\\  tin  MM  after  thcii-  lon;^"  march  homeward  W  e 
hear  of  hiTvi  vwihn'/  tlic  .Ifc  nf  Troy,  and  travellin;^'  in  Ki^-ypt  to 
see  the  statue  <'i  .>icniuon  nom  which  iniraculou>  iiui>ic  \vas 
heard  at  sunrise 

418.  His  Interest  in  the  Provinces.  The  |»ro\  inces  pndl'cd 
greatlv  l»v  hi>  x'-  New  huildintTs  were  i i(  rtcd  in  maiiv  cities 
of  .Vda  and  ( irccce;  the  minc^  in  !  >.i'  Im  v  ,rr  d«\eloped ;  <-olonies 
W'ir  planted  in  the  I)anu!>ia.n  piosmecs;  the  delunse-  ol  tin' 
northern  frontiri-  w»i(  irthened;  a  -froiiir  wall  was  huilt 
in  Britain  .-^olway  Mrth  to  ^\  all>-end.  and  the  collection  of 
t.i\i  \'.as  taken  on!  of  the  hand*  of  private  rontraciors  and 
'  '    ■  t  lorth  manaiii  d  hv  die  i^-o\  erniiiint 


419.  The  Pantheon  and  the  Castle  of  San  Angelo.     Two 

great  monumculs  of  his  reign  are  still  standing  in  Home,  the 
Pantheon  and  the  ("astic  of  San  Angelo.  d'hc  Pantheo.i  was 
originally  built  hy  Agrippa  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  hut  was 
later  destrovcti  hv  fire,  and  ihc  huildini''  which  one  sees  to-dav 
in  Konu'  is  the  work  of  Hadrian.     Tln-CaNileof  San  Angelo, as 


1111       l'\  \  II'  I  o^ 


th(*  other  slruclun'  is  now  called,  was  huilt  hy  Hadrian  as  his 
mansolcinn,  and  in  it  his  ashes  were  |)laced  on  his  death  in  tiic 
vear  \'.\S. 

420.  Antoninus  Pius,  A.  D.  138-161.  Tlic  wisdom  wliich 
Hadrian  iiad  shown  in  ahandoning  outlying  provinces,  like 
.\>syria,  which  il  rc(|uired  a  constant  clVorl  lo  defend,  and  in 
strengthening  the  frontier,  s«'cin-e(l  peace  ihroughoul  the  reign 
of  his  successor  Antoninus  Pius.      \iiloiiiiiii>  was  a  man  of  an 


212 


K()MA\   msi()i;v 


FROM    VESPASIAN'    TO   SKl'TlMIl  S    SKVKKl  S 


213 


coinnionly  adojJtcd  tlir  inoduination  of  his  predecessor,  making 
sucli  additions  to  it  and  cliaiijics  in  it  as  smncd  to  him  (k-irahki. 
Now  under  iiistruelioiis  irom  lla(hiaii  an  cnuncnt  jurist  named 
Salvius  Juhanus  hrou<^!it  togetlier  in  a  sinj^de  edict  all  the  })rin- 
ciples  and  forms  puhhshed  liy  j)ractors  and  curulc  acdiles,  in  so 
far  as  thev  were  still  in  force.  Fron.  this  lime  forth  the  praetor 
could  make  no  chan;j;cs  in  le*j;al  niellmds,  and  new  lavs  could  he 
made  onlv  bv  the  emperor  or  the  senate. 

416.  His  Foreign  Policy.  Hadrian  gave  the  same  systematic 
attention  to  tlie  needs  of  the  army.  An  improvrd  h)rm  of  the 
phalanx  was  adopted;  new  kinds  of  armor  were  introduced,  and 
bodies  of  troops  were  trained  for  .special  |»urposes.  Hut  Hadrian 
was  a  man  of  peace.  He  gave  up  at  once  the  provinces  of 
Armenia,  Mesojxitamia,  and  Assyria,  and  recognized  the  kmg  of 
Parthia  as  a  lawful  monarch.  lie  sjient  ten  years  of  liis  reign 
travelling  througl I  the  provinces,  so  that  In-  became  thoroughly 
familiar  with  their  needs,  and  no  «nie  of  iu>  |'iedece.>MJi>  broke 
so  thoroughly  with  tlie  rcjHiblican  theory  that  the  provinces 
were  subordinate  to  Italy,  and  were  to  be  used  for  the  l>enefit  of 

Italy. 

417.  His  Curiosity.  Ills  rxlended  travels  gav<-  .him  an 
opportunity  to  satisfy  that  curiosity  which  his  contemp(jraries 
noted  as  his  mo>t  pronounced  charaele;  i>tic.  We  hear  of  him 
going  to  the  point  in  Asia  Minor  where  the  (Jreeks  with  Xcn(»- 
phon  first  saw  the  sea  after  their  long  march  homeward.  We 
hear  of  him  visiting  the  >ite  of  rroy,  and  travelling  in  Egyi)t  to 
see  the  statue  of  Mennion  from  which  miraculous  music  was 
heard  at  sunrise. 

418.  His  Interest  in  the  Provinces.  The  proviiK  e>  profited 
grentlv  bv  his  visits  Xew  buik lings  were  erected  in  many  cities 
of  ^Lsia  and  <  ue-  v  r .  the  mines  in  I  )acia  were  develo|)ed;  colonies 
were  })lar!ted  in  tlie  Damibian  provinces;  the  defenses  of  the 
northern  frontier  were  strengthened;  a  strong  wall  was  l)uilt 
in  Britain  from  Solway  Firth  to  Walls-end,  and  the  collection  of 
t.ixc-  was  taken  out  of  the  handf  of  pri\*aic  contractors  and 
henceforth  managed  bv  llie  L'"<'Verimient. 


419.  The  Pantheon  and  the  Castle  of  San  Angelo.     Two 

great  monuments  of  his  reign  are  still  standing  in  Rome,  the 
Pantheon  and  the  Castle  of  San  Angelo.  The  Pantheon  was 
originally  l)uilt  by  Agripj)a  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  was 
later  destroved  bv  fire,  and  the  buildini';  which  one  sees  to-day 
in  Rome  is  the  work  of  Hadrian.     Tlie(  asdeof  San  Angelo,  as 


Till-;    p\\Tin.')' 


the  other  structure  is  now  calknl,  was  built  by  Hadrian  as  his 
mausoleum,  and  in  it  liis  aslies  were  i)laced  on  his  death  in  the 
yi-ar  b'iS. 

420.  Antoninus  Pius,  A.  D.  138-161.  The  wisdom  which 
Hadrian  liad  shown  in  abandoning  outlying  provinces,  like 
Assyria,  which  it  required  a  constant  effort  to  defend,  and  in 
strengthening  the  frontier,  secured  ])eacc  throughout  the  reign 
of  his  successor  Antonimis  Pius.     Antoninus  was  a  man  of  an 


214 


ItOMAX    HISTORY 


ai]iial)l('  disposition  juhI  t»f  <:<•<. d  p.irl  f»ni  \\r  hickcd  iUc  active 
teiiilH'raitiriit  and  tlic  aliility  a^  an  nr^anizcr  whicli  liis  |)ivdc- 
eessor  had  shown,  (/onsciincridy  he  made  no  jjjreal  chan^n-s  at 
home  or  ahnnid.  His  hnmaiic  disposiiion  was  relle(te<l  in  die 
luhninistratiori  i»f  jiiNticc,  foi-  lie  insisU-d  <.n  a|)j»lyini:  the  sj)irit 
rather  than  the  men-  let  ler  ol  the  law,  and  held  an  aeensed  [lerson 


'•■!»'•     ^     '     *         PUS   '    • 


TIU.     \1  A  r  .Oj.l    I    \I     1.1       HA  DUIA  M 


innoe'-'iit,  as    Hnj^lisii-speakinj^  peoples  dr.  to-day,  nntil  lie  had 
been  {)roved  J^niilty. 

421.  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  A.  D.  161  - 180.  It  was 
a  strange  whim  of  fate  that,  w  lien  Antonimis  died,  die  govern- 
ment of  th<'  world  slioiild  he  dirnsl  npon  a  man  who  would  lia\r 
preferred  to  spend  his  hfe  in  his  stiuiy  as  a  philosopher;  and  thai 


FROM   VESl'ASIAN    TO    SEPTIMFUS   SEVERUS 


215 


a  man  who  (Ie|)h)red  violence  should  spend  fourteen  years  of  his 
life  in  w  arfare.  It  was  str;mge,  too,  that  in  the  reign  of  one  whose 
main  desire  it  was  lo  see  his  people  prosperous  and  happy  the 
ut)r>t  pestilence  should  break  out  that  the  Roman  world  had 
ever  known.  Strangest  of  all  is  llie  fact  that  the  ruler  who  wrote 
in  all  sincerity  "toliMance  is  a  part  of  justice"  should  be  popularly 
regarde<l  as  the  hist  emj)(>ror  to  I'crsecute  the  Christians  sys- 
tenuitieally;yelall  this  was  true  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  \ 

422.  War  with  Parthia,  A.  D.  162-  166.  The  war  which 
broke  out  in  PaiMliia  slioith/  aflci-  his  a<cession  was  a,  legacy  from 
the  policy  of  his  predecessor,  who  had  failed  to  insist  upon  that 
res[)ect  h)r  Koman  authoiity  in  the  lOast  which  Hadrian  had 
enfor<'e(l.  It  was  ai^aiii  the  Armenian  (piestion  which  caused 
the  trouble.  The  struggle  ended  with  the  submission  (jf  IVirlhia, 
but  the  vicioiy  was  dearly  bought,  for  the  returning  soldiers 
brought  with  them  a  plague  which  laid  wast(^  the  empire,  and 
weakened  Italy  at  a  moment  when  she  needed  her  whole 
strength  to  repel  the  inroads  of  the  barbarians  to  the  north. 

423.  Wars  with  the  Marcomanni,  A.  D.  167  - 175  and 
178-180.  The  barbaiians  \\  ho  thrcjitened  Roman  territory 
were  the  Alarcoiiiaimi,  (xluadi,  and  other  peoples  to  the  north  of 
Raetia  and  Xoricum,  who  were  erowded  out  of  their  country  by 
a  soudiward  movement  of  the  (icrman  tribes  beyond  them. 
They  s\\e])l  dow  n  into  the  noithern  ])rovinces,  and  even  entered 
Italy,  and  laid  sieg(>  to  A((uileia.  The  difficulties  of  a  campaign 
in  so  mountainous  a  country  as  modern  Rohcmia,  wliere  the 
Marcomanni  lived,  and  the  loss  in  men  and  money  which  the 
em  I  lire  had  suffen-d  in  conscfpicnce  of  the  plague  made  the  war 
a  ha  id  one.  Xevcrtlieless,  it  was  l)rought  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion, and  a  latei*  ujirising  of  the  Marcomanni  and  their 
neighbors  was  {)ut  down.  But  before  he  could  reduce  the 
newly  acquired  territory  to  the  form  of  a  province  Marcus  died. 

424.  The  Development  of  Serfdom.  Before  his  death, 
however,  he  instituted  a  policy  in  dealing  with  the  barbarians 
which  had  far-reaching  social  and  economic  results  for  many 
centuries.     He  assigned  land  in  Roman  territory  to  large  num- 


2  1 1 


i;<)M  w    iii^ioin 


amiable  disposilion  ;iiitl  «>l'  v I  p.ni ,,  l.iit  lie  lacked  llu'  arii\( 

tt'ni[H'rairi«Mil  and  tlic  al>ilil\  aN  an  ui-;iiii/j  r  w  liicli  his  |)rc(lr- 
rrssor  fiad  ^h()\VIl.  ( '(»nM-(|iuiillv  111-  iii;id('  ii<>  i;'i't'al  chaii^o  al 
li(nn(>  or  ald'oad.  Ili^  hiiiii;iiir  di>|M.^iti(Hi  was  rcllrclcij  in  flic 
adiiiiiiisiralioii  i>l' jii^li'c.  fur  li;  in-i-t.d  on  ;i|»j)l\  iiiir  tli<'  spirit 
ratlirr  than  tiic  nicp*  Irlirr  of  thr  law.  and  held  ;oi  a«rii^(  .1  [xison 


T  HI       \t  \  ' 


<  1 1     H  V  f  >  I ;  I  V  V 


innocMit,   as    MntiTi>h-s|»(a!v;ii;4   |M(i|i|f-  i\*>  In-dav,   nntil   he   had 
hern  proved  ;^nhllv. 


as 


421.  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  A.  D.  161-180.    It  wa 

a  strange  whim  of  lair  that,  when  Anloninii>  «li(Mh  tin-  ^oveni- 
iiU'Ot  of  the  world  should  !>»■  liiiii  I  upon  a  man  who  would  ha\r 
|>referrrd  In  -pmd  his  hh-  in  In      !itd\  :i    .i  [»hilo-.oplnr-;  ;ind  tli;il 


iia-M    vi.si'vsiAN    iM  si.iTiMirs  si:\  Ilia  s 


215 


a  man  who  «lcplorrd  \iolrii<  <  'lonld  >p(Mid  fourteen  Ncars  of  his 
lile  in  warlarr.  1 1  w  ;i^  slran^e.  loo,  dial  in  lli(M'ei;Li-n  of  one  whose 
niain  doiic  il  was  to  >ce  his  [n'oi!  prosperous  and  haj)py  the 
Worst  peslilcnce  slionid  hreak  ont  ihal  the  Koman  world  luul 
ever  known.  Slianj.:,' ^i  (.fall  is  ihe  hid  dial  die  ruler  who  wrote 
in  all  sincei"ily  "lolrr.incf  I-  a  pari  r»f  jnslicc"  should  \>v  poj)ularly 
i'e;iarded  as  ihr  lir>l  cmpi-rnr  fo  pcrscciile  ihe  ( 'hi'isdans  sys- 
tematical ly;  }('l  all  ihi^  v\  a^  Ii-ik-  of  Mai-cus  Aurelius.  \ 

422.  War  with  Parthia,  A.  D.  162-166.    The  war  wjiich 

hr<»kc  oul  in  I'arlhia  shoill  after  his  acccssitui  was  a  le;^ac\'  from 
die  poTny  of  In  ,  p!'cdc(  ,'n-,(ii-.  who  had  failed  lo  insist  upon  that 
res[)eel  hir  Koman  aulli(»i-ily  in  the  l^asl  which  Hadrian  had 
enforcetl.  1 1  wa.  ai^aiti  ihe  Armenian  <|Ueslion  which  caused 
the  liouhle.  TIm-  sI  ruu'J:!''  ''nded  w  ilh  lln*  suhmission  of  i'arthia. 
hut  ihe  \i(loi\  wa^  dearly  houji'hl,  hn'  the  retnrnin^j;  .soldiers 
hrout;iit  with  lliem  a  [•lai^iic  wlii<li  laid  wa^le  the  em|>ire,  and 
W(>akened  Italy  al  a  m<»mcHl  when  slu*  ncjMJed  her  whole 
stren;j;lli   to  repel  ihe  inroads  of  the  harharians  to  the  north. 

423.  Wars  with  the  Marcomanni,  A.  D.  167-175  and 
178-180.  The  hai-haiiahs  who  ihrealeiied  Roman  territory 
wcic  the  Alareonianni,  <v*nadi,  and  other  peo|)les  to  the  north  of 
Kaeiia  and  .\oricum,  w  ho  were  ci-ow(|(m1  out  of  their  country  hy 
a  soiidiward  nioxcnietil  of  die  (icrman  trihes  heyond  them, 
riicy  sW(  pi  down  into  die  noi'lhern  |)ro\inces,  and  even  enti'red 
Italy,  and  laid  >ic<rc  lo  Acpiilcia.  Tlie  diflicullies  of  a  camj)ai<^n 
in  M>  mouiilainous  a  country  as  modern  lioliemia,  where  the 
Marcomanni  li\('(|,  and  die  l<fss  in  men  and  money  which  the 
enipir(>  had  .suirere<l  in  con>c(jiieiice  of  the  j)la|;'ue  made  the  war 
a  hard  one.  Xexciihelcss,  il  was  hrou^^dil  to  a  successful  con- 
clusion, and  a  later  npii>in^  of  the  Marcomanni  and  their 
nei»^dibors  was  put  down.  Hut  hefore  he  could  reduce  the 
newly  ac(juired  territory  to  the  hjrm  of  a  j)rovince  Marcus  died. 

424.  The  Development  of  Serfdom.  Hehjre  his  deatli, 
howcwer,  he  inslifuled  a  policy  in  dealin^^  with  the  harl)arians 
which  had  far-rcachinu  >oeiai  and  economic  result.s  for  nianv 
centuries.      He  assigned  land  in  Koman  territory  to  lar«re  nura- 


21*) 


KuMAN     lllsrMl,V 


IxTS  of  (rrniKiii  ;i!iil  Saniialiaii  <-ol<nii>ts.  'Hir^o  m-IIKts  wcie 
really  M'li-,  iH'caiiM,  allh.Mi_i:!i  llicv  wtrc  fiv»%  llicv  could  lUMllicr 
own  nor  Ira-^c  llirir  fariiis.  'I'lu'  huiiiIht  of  sucli  coId/ii,  lis 
ihcy  wi'iv  calltMl,  v\a>  lar^rly  iiKTi'Msnl  by  ihc  lirowiii^i;  iiKil)ilily 
of  trnaiit>  In  pay  tlirir  rcnl.  Sufli  tciiaiit-  roiild  in>t,  of  coursr, 
be  alluweil   io  uiov.    tnim  their  farm^,a!i«!   K-ave  lu-luml    llieiii 

II II  |)a  i  <1  tin-  accuiiiii- 
!ai''(l  (•liar;i;('s  for  reiil, 
and  coiiseijuently  wt-re 
lurnianeiilly  Ixmiid  to 
llic  land  \v  li  i  rli  duy 
occupied,  and  1  a  jts  ed 
into  a  state  of  serfi h)ni, 
which  descended  from 
fa  tiler  t(t  son. 

425.  The  Chris- 
tians. 'I1i<'  develop- 
nien  f  of  Cliristianity 
\va><an>iii}^  the  ;.^o\ern- 
nicnl  consi(lcral)lc  anx- 
iety. The  ia[»i<lily  with 
w  liich  die  n«\\  reliii'ioii 
w  a^  >prc;i(hn^  is  clearly 
shown  hy  the  let  I  e  r.s 
which  provincial  an- 
tlnn-ilics  in  A-ia,  (irc<M-c,  and  (iaul  -cut  to  Ivoine,  iiKjuirin;^- 
liow  (hey  should  <leal  widi  its  adherents  Marcus  adopti-d 
the  policy  of  |-ej)ression,  and  jza\e  insti'uctioiis  dial  dutse  who 
eonf«'sscd  dial  thevwcre  (hrisfiaiis  should  he  j)Ut  Io  death. 
SiiH'c  many  of  ihe  ( 'hii  Ji;ii;  \<<hnitarily  a\'owed  their  faith, 
tlie  ininiher  of    martyrs    steadily   increased. 

426.  The  Reign  of  Commodus,  A.  D.  180- 192.     Conimo- 

dus,  who  succeeded  his  fatlier,  revived  the  evil  memori<vs  of  the 
later  Julian  eniiH-rors.  He  irave  himself  up  to  the  pursuit  of 
pleasure,  takinir  pari  in  the  pulilityL'ames  just  as  Nero  had  taken 
part  in  mu->ical  coutot^,  and  making'  actors  and  I'ladialois  hi- 


u.\ 


A  <    I.I    I   II    -    I  \    Ml 

I   I  i  ',  i;  Mil 


'Af- 


P^HOM    VESI'ASIAX    '!'<)   SKI'I'IMU'S   SKVKKUS 


217 


pnneipal  associates.  The  alVairs  of  ^ov«'rument  were  lurne(l 
over  to  fa\orites.  (^uiet  was  secured,  at  home  by  su;)j)lyin<^  the 
po|>ulace  with  food  and  Raines  a!  the  piihlic  expense,  on  the 
frontier  hy  making  i-ifts  to  daui!;erous  chieftains.  There  was 
no  money  to  repair  |)ul)lie  huildimrs;  ii;old  coins  disa{)peared 
from  circulation,  and  funds  for  the  sup|)i)rl  of  j)oor  cliildren  were 
exhausted.  The  empenu'  whose*  rei*^n  had  brought  on  tliese 
conditions  fell  the  victim  of  a  plot  laid  airainsl  his  life  h}'  his 
eoncuhine  M;ircia  and  carried  out  hy  an  athlete  named  Xarcissus. 

427.  Pertinax,  A.  D.  193.  'i'he  conspirators  j)la<ej  on 
the  throne  W  llelvius  IVrtinax,  a  (iistini::uished  sohiier,  hut  he 
was  soon  overthrown,  and  a  senator  named  Didius  Julianus, 
who  surpassed  all  other  aspirants  for  the  crown  in  his  |)romises 
to  the  pretorian  <^uanl,  was  investeil  with  ihe  jMirple. 

428.  L.  Septimius  Severus  Made  Emperor  in  A.  D.  193. 

But  the  break  in  ihe  succession  eneoura;^ed  ambitious  leacJers 
to  lav  <laim  to  the  throne,  as  had  been  the  case  on  Nero's 
death.  L.  Se|)timius  Severus  raiseil  the  standard  of  revolt  iii 
I*annonia,  Pescennius  Ni<.i:er  in  Syria,  and  ('lo<lius  All)inus  in 
Britain.  Septimin>  Severn  Jial  a  larirer  anny  than  his  rivals,  and 
without  iiH'ctinti:  serious  i-csislaiiee,  made  hiaiself  master  of  the 
[KMiinsula  and  of  Koine.  The  fri;i:hlened  senate  eondemned 
Julianus  to  dealh,  and  Septimius  Severus  was  [)roelaimed 
eni[)er()r  in  the  summer  of  ID.'I. 

429.  The  Dyarchy  Given  Up.  From  a  survey  of  the  history 
of  the  s<H'()ud  cenlury  It  is  clear  that  the  independent  eooperalion 
{»f  tin-  senate  with  the  emperor  had  become  a  fiction.  Xeill:<'r 
in  the  choice  of  an  ein[)eror,  nor  in  tlie  maiiai!;e!nent  of  alfairs 
after  he  ha<l  as<-eiided  the  throne,  could  it  |)lay  an  eifective  |)a:t. 
The  theor\'  of  the  succession  rested  on  two  irreconcilable  thin'j:s  - 
heredit\',  or  adoption  l)y  the  emperor,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
free  choice  of  the  senate.  These  two  methods  of  selectin^^  a 
ruler  could  not  be  followed  at  the  same  time,  and  the  weaker 
element  in  the  dual  system,  the  senate,  yielded.  When  it  eame 
to  the  man;iir<''nent  (A'  |»ublic  alfairs  senators  found  real  power 
centred  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  and  iiolhin:.'-  left  to  them  but 


216 


KOMAX    mSTOKY 


bcTs  of  German  and  Saniuitian  roloiiists.  IIu-m'  M-ttlers  were 
really  serfs,  iHcanM-,  althouuli  thcv  wiiv  (rw,  they  could  lu^ither 
own  nor  ka-i  tlu  ir  farms.  Thr  niimlKT  of  smli  colonic  as 
they  were  called,  \\  as  lar<;(lv  iuereased  by  the  growing  inability 
of  tenants  to  pay  their  rent.  Such  tenants  eould  not,  of  course, 
be  allowed  to  move  from  their  farms,  and  leave  behind  them 

unpaid  the  accunm- 
lated  eharires  for  rent, 
and  consecjuently  were 
permanently  bound  to 
the  land  which  they 
occupied,  and  laps  e  d 
into  a  state  of  serfdom, 
which  descended  from 
father  to  son. 

425.  The  Chris- 
tians. Th(i  develop- 
ment of  Chrislianity 
was  causing  the  govci'ii- 
menl  considerable  anx- 
ielv.   The  nii)iditv  with 

t  1  t 

wliich  I  he  new  religion 
was  spreading  is  clearly 
sIkjwu  bv  the  let  te  rs 
which  i)rovincial  au- 
thorities in  Asia,  (ireece,  and  (iaul  sent  to  Rome,  incjuiring 
how  they  should  deal  with  its  adherents.  Marcus  ado|»te<l 
the  poTuT  of  repression,  and  gav<'  instnicii(»ns  that  those  who 
confessed  tliat  they  wen-  Thristians  should  be  put  to  death. 
Since  manv  of  the  (lirisliaiis  vohnitarilv  avowed  their  faith, 
the  number  of    nuirtyrs  steadily  iiuTcased. 

426.  The  Reign  of  Commodus,  A.  D.  180-192.  Commo- 
dus,  who  succeeded  his  father,  revived  the  evil  memories  of  the 
later  Julian  emi'crors.  He  gave  liimself  u})  to  the  pursuit  of 
pleasure,  taking  part  in  the  public  games  just  as  Xero  had  taken 
part  in  nuisieal  contests,  and  midving  actors  and  ghidiators  his 


MAUCU«  AVKl- 


;ii  •^tt■I'.v^ 


CllAKHJl' 


FROM  VESPASIAN    TO  SEPTIMHJS   SEVERU8 


217 


])rincipal  associates.  The  afYairs  of  government  were  turned 
over  to  favorites,  (^uiet  w  as  secured,  at  home  by  supplying  the 
po|)ulace  with  food  and  games  at  the  public  expense,  on  the 
frontier  by  making  gifts  io  dangerous  chieftains.  There  was 
no  money  to  repair  public  buildings;  gold  coins  disappeared 
from  circulation,  and  funds  for  tlie  support  of  })oor  children  were 
exluiustetl.  The  emj)eror  whose  reign  had  brought  on  these 
conditions  fell  the  victim  of  a  plot  laid  against  his  life  by  his 
concubine  Marcia  and  carried  out  by  an  athlete  named  Narcissus. 

427.  Pertinax,  A.  D.  193.  The  consi)irators  placed  on 
the  throne  P.  Ilelvius  Pertinax,  a  distinguished  .soldier,  but  he 
was  soon  overthrown,  and  a  seiuitor  named  Didius  Julianus, 
who  surpassed  all  other  aspirants  for  the  crowni  in  his  promises 
to  the  pretorian  guard,  was  invested  with  the  purple. 

428.  L.  Septimius  Severus  Made  Emperor  in  A.  D.  193. 
But  the  break  in  the  succession  encouraged  ambitious  leaders 
to  lay  claim  to  the  throne,  as  had  been  the  ca.se  on  Nero's 
death.  L.  Septimius  Severus  raise<l  the  standard  of  revolt  in 
Pannonia,  Peseennius  Niger  in  Syria,  and  Clodius  Albinus  in 
Britain.  Septimius  Severus  ha  1  a  larger  army  than  his  rivals,  and 
without  meeting  serious  resistance,  made  himself  master  of  tlie 
[)eninsula  and  of  Rome.  The  frightenerl  senate  condemned 
Julianus  to  death,  and  Septimius  Severus  was  proclaimed 
emperor  in  the  sunnner  of  WY.l. 

429.  The  Dyarchy  Given  Up.  From  a  survey  of  the  history 
of  the  second  ccnturv  it  is  clear  that  the  inde[)endent  cooperation 
of  the  .senate  with  the  emperor  had  become  a  fiction.  Neither 
in  the  choice  of  an  emperor,  nor  in  the  numagement  of  affairs 
after  he  had  ascended  the  tin-one,  could  it  ])lay  an  effective  part. 
The  theory  of  the  succession  reste<l  on  two  irreconcilable  things  - 
heredity,  or  adoption  by  the  emperor,  and  on  the  other  hand  the 
free  choice  of  the  senate.  These  tw^o  methods  of  selecting  a 
ruler  could  not  l)e  followerl  at  the  same  time,  and  the  weaker 
element  in  the  dual  svstem,  the  .senate,  vielded.  When  it  came 
to  the  management  of  public  jdfairs  senjitors  found  real  [)ower 
centred  in  the  hands  of  the  em[)eror,  and  nothing  left  to  them  l)Ut 


218 


liuMVN     lllsroKY 


formalities  and  (lrt;iil>,  aihl  cwn  iti  siicli  matters  opposition  to 
the  wislio  of  tlic  tMi.|K'r(»r  was  iimlcrtakni  unlv  at  the  risk  of 
hein*]:  pnKccuti'J  hv  one  of  his  |>li:iiil  tools  on  the  charge  of  hi*^li 
treason. 

430.  The  Empire  Prosperous  in  the  Second  Century.  It 
was  a  fortunate  thiiiii'  f<»r  thr  provinces  that  t\v«>  of  tlie  iihl<'sl 
emperors  of  the  second  century,  Trajan  and  Hadrian,  not  only 
travelled  e\tensi\-elv  ihronrh  the  empire  Itnf  were  of  provincial 
descent.  These  two  \'in-[-.  <ltd  mncli  lo  inii»iove  tlie  ^-overnment 
and  financial  conditions  and  proluthly  the  lioman  world,  taken 
a.s  a  whole,  w;i>  nc\er  >o  !Mn>p«>roiis  at  any  period  of  its  history 
as  in  this  century. 

431.  The  Decline  of  Local  Self-government.  And  vet 
there  W(»re  siu^n^  of  internal  \V'■aknes-^  l.olh  in  Italy  and  al)roa<l- 
Governors  in  the  provinces  and  imperial  ollicials  in  Italy  had 
encroa<hcd  so  much  upon  the  traditional  fnneti«>ns  of  llu*  local 

mairistnites,  and  »it:.-e  whf.  held  loc;d  ridices  wcvc  oliji-^^ed  to 
contrihnt<' such  lar-e  mn-.  to  ihe  siippoil  (jf  tin  -..urmnciit,  that 
it  was  dillicnlt  to  fiml  <-andidilr~.  for  thi'  mniii<*ipal  ma;,ns- 
tracies,  and  interest  in  lociil  |)olili  hnost  dc;id. 

432.  The  State  of  the  Finances.  Financial  conditions 
were  steadily  <;rowini,'  w (.••-<•  •!'«  1  v.nrse.  Thi^  is  shown  hy 
the  fact  that  Hie  stale  had  to  cancel  the  payment  (jf  lar^^e  sums 
due  it  in  the  form  of  t,t\r^.  I(»  s|»en<l  a  jj^reat  deal    of  money  in 

helpinj.^  the  poor,  and  to  de|»reciate  the  <  ii;-:-ency.  ( )n  the  eve 
of  the  war  with  the  Mnrcomatmi,  ?\Iarcns  Ain*elius  was  actually 
obli<jed  to  sell  the  cii.^^u  y  vvel.  f(»  !■;!i^e  mo*iey  for  the  caiiijsiii^rL 
The  trouble  lay  |)artl}-  in  llie  e\trava;j,'aiice  ol'  ihi^  court  and  in  a 
faulfv  s\  >tem  of  taxation,  hut  mainlv  in  I  lie  lack  of  ener«^^y  and 
in  the  inca}>acity  <»f  the  people  theniv  Kc,  and  in  their  tendency 
durin<T^  times  f»f  jim  ■>  '"itA-  to  assnrne  financial  res|K)nsihilities 
which  thev  con!  1  noi  lu.iun.uii  ^v^.  n  unexpected  demands  were 
made  on  th(Mr  iv  ,.iiree-.  The  emperor  Hadrian  was  largely  re- 
sponsil)le  for  this  hi  il.     Under  his  enconra^^einent  the  small 

towns  all  tln-oufrh  Italy  and  tlie  provinces  erected  costly 
baths,  theatres,  and  other  pulilic  hmldin'/s  and  works,  whose 


MtOM    VKSPASIW     ro    SEPTlMll  S    SEVERUS 


219 


construction  exliaiisted  their  resources  at  the  time,  and  whose 
maintenance  hecame  an  intolerable  burden  when  some  public 
misfortune  came,  like  the  plague  under  Marcus  Aurelius. 

433.  The  Provinces  and  the  Barbarians.  ( )min()us,  too, 
were  the  revolts  of  Roman  o;('nerals  in  the  i)rovinces,  in  which 
re\()lts  not  infre<|Uently  the  leader  of  tlie  insurivction  called 
upon  the  barlKirians  to  hel[)  him.  Tlie  simtlnvard  movement 
of  lh«'  (ierman  tribes  in  the-  wv^n  of  Marcus  Aurelius  also  boded 
ill  for  the  future,  and  the  policy  of  recruiting;  the  army  from 
the  barbarians  and  of  st'ltlinii;  lar<i-e  numbers  of  them  in  Roman 
territory  vvIkm-c  th<'V  could  learn  Roman  nu^lhods  and  some  day 
turn  their  knowled<j;e  aijainst  tln'ir  masters  was  of  (hmbtful 
wisdom. 

434.  The  Literary  Emperors.  Of  tlie  emperors  of  the  sec- 
oml  centurv  .Vnlomnus  Pins  showed  an  interest  in  literature, 
Tbnlrian  wrol<'  a  litth;  in  both  j)rose  and  wvvsc,  while  ^Marcus 
.Vin-elius  left  behind  him  in  his  Mn/Uffliftus  a  little  liook  written 
in  (ireck  which  has  ^iveii  comfort  and  courage  to  many  readers 
.iiK  e  hi>da\.  The  worku'ivesus,  in  the  h)rm  of  simple  notes,  the 
reflccllc.ns  of  a  siner-re,  kindly,  upri^^ht  man  on  duty,  life,  and 
ihe^ovcrnmenl  of  the  world 

435.  The  Literary  Style,  Artificial.  Rut  notwithstanding 
this  imperial  interest  in  literary  matters,  pure  literature  (lid  not 
flonrisli.  The  literary  langna-re,  like  the  people,  sec^ned  to  be 
exhausted,  and  the  best  known  writers  of  the  period,  like 
Frouto,  (Jellins,  and  Apuleins,  tried  to  infuse  new  life  into  it 
from  the  early  period  by  using  in  their  works  the  words  and 
phrases  of  Kmiins,  Accius,  and  Cato;  but  such  a  .style  was 
bound  to  be  artiHcial. 

436.  Fronto,  about  A.  D.  100-175,  Aulus  Gellius,  born 
about  A.  D.  125.  Frontr)  was  tlie  tt-acher  of  Marcus  Aurelius, 
and  his  j)rinci|)al  work  which  luis  come  down  to  us  is  his  corre- 
spondence with  the  emperor.  Aulus  Gellius  compiled  what 
mif^ht  be  callecl  a  scrai>book  witli  extensive  comments  of  his 
own.     The  Atfir  Xirjhl.s,  as  he  called  his  book,  deals  with  Ian- 


220 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


j^uji^e,  literature,  law,  and  jjliilosopli;. ,  ami  contains  niiicli  valu- 
able information  in  a  (li>((jini«'<i<(l  tnnn. 

437.  Apuleius,  about  A.  D.  126  to  about  200.  The  most 
interesting  and  original  of  the  many  works  of  Apuleius  is  his 
story  of  adventure,  railed  the  MrtdDiorphosps.  Lucius  the  hero 
is  transformed  into  an  ass,  and  in  the  form  of  this  animal  under- 
goes a  great  many  marvelous  cx{)erienees  at  the  hands  of  magi- 
eianSj  rohf)ers,  vagrant  [>ri  -t -.  and  ladies  of  fashion.  Into  the 
main  thread  of  the  narrallv(>  .>onie  tw<>nty  or  thirty  |)oj)ular  tales 
are  interwoven,  one  of  which,  the  eharmiuL^  >!ory  of  ( 'upiil  and 
Psyche,  has  })ec()nic  famous. 

438.  The  Historians  Suetonius  and  Florus.  History  was 
(  ultivated  in  tlie  >econd  cenlurv  hv  Suetonius,  who  was  for  a 
time  Hadrian's  secretary,  and  t)y  Florus.  In  liis  Lii'cs  of  tJie 
Cucsars  Suetonius  ha>  iJ^\\r\\  us  i»i  a  chatty  way,  without  much 
regard  to  ihc  a?Tanu"ement  of  tlie  material,  hiograj)lues  of  the 
emperors  from  Julius  Caesar  to  Domilian.  Florus's  history  is 
little  more  than  a  skelcli,  in  \rry  rlittorical  language,  of  the 
wars  of    I'lome  from  the  earliest   times  down   to    his  own    day. 

439.  The  Institutes  of  Gains.  Tlie  writings  -u  Roman 
law  are  the  works  of  most  perniaiient  value  which  '«\e  owc  to  the 
second  century.  IIa<lrian,  by  having  all  existing  judieial  rules 
and  princ-iplcs  re(luc<'(|  to  a  -,\^lcina!ic  and  permanent  form, 
prepared  tlie  wav  for  the  admirable  introduction  to  the  study  of 
law  which  (iaiii>  lia-^  left  n>  in  hi^  I ii.stifiifcs,  and  this  book  in  its 
turn  was  the  foundalion,  three  cchlurics  and  a  half  later,  of  one 
part  of  the  great  code  of  Justinian,  in  which  Koman  law  took  its 
final  form 

440.  The  Earliest  Christian  Latin  Literature.  To  the 
seeond  century  belongs  the  first  |)iece  of  Christian  Latin  litera- 
ture. It  is  a  pami)li'et  called  the  Odavim,  written  in  defense  of 
Christianity,  by  Marcus  Minucius  Felix.  At  about  the  same 
time  there  appeared  in  (jreek,  Justin  Martyr's  celebrated  apolo- 
gies for  Christianity,  in  which  he  explains  the  my>tcri«s  (J  the 
faith,  and  upholds  tlie  truth  of  Christianity  and  the  innocence 
of  its  adherents 


FROM    VKSPASIAN     I  <  >    SKPTIMIUS   SKVERUS 


221 


441.  Revival  of  Greek  Letters.  The  second  century  in 
fact  witnessed  a  revival  of  Greek  letters,  and  Greek  became  the 
literary  language  of  the  emj)ire.  Lucian  of  Samosata,  the  most 
distinguished  figure  in  the  moyement,  shows  the  absurdities  oi 
the  old  theology  in  his  inimitable  Dlalocjucs  oj  the  Gods,  and 
doubtless  helped  to  clear  the  way  for  Christianity.  Aristides  of 
Mysia,  like  Ai)u!eius,  travelled  through  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
lecturing  in  the  i)rincipal  cities.  Fifty  or  more  of  his  discourses, 
which  deal  mainly  with  incidents  in  ancient  history,  have  come 
down  to  us.  Arrian  of  Xicomedia  in  Bithynia  is  best  known  for 
his  Anabasis  of  Alexander,  which  is  in  imitation  of  Xenophon's 
work,  but  is  more  comprehensive  in  its  scope  than  Xenophon's 
Anauasis,  since  it  contains  a  complete  biography  of  its  hero. 
From  Appian's  histories  of  the  foreign  wars  and  the  civil  wars  of 
Rome  we  have  already  had  occasion  to  quote.  The  Foreujn 
Wars  furnishes  an  invaluable  source  of  information  for  the  con- 
tests with  Syria,  Illyria,  (^irthagc,  and  with  Mithridates.  Ap- 
pian's book  on  the  C'lcil  Wars  is  an  eciually  important  work 
on  internal  alfairs  in  Italy  from  133  to  35  B.  c\,  on  the  war  between 
the  triumvirs  and  the  repulilicans,  and  on  the  struggle  between 
Antony  and  ( )etavian.  In  this  period  also  falls  Pausanias's 
Ithierary  o/  (Ireeec,  in  which  he  aims  to  describe  all  the  im- 
portant buildings  and  works  of  art  to  be  seen  in  Greece  in  his 
day,  and  the  great  treatises  on  astronomy  and  geography  of 
Ptolemy  of  Alexandria  belong  to  the  same  time. 

442.  Summary  of  Events  from  Vespasian  to  Septimius 
Severus,  A.  D.  69  - 193.  Vespasian  was  chosen  emperor,  as  we 
haye  noticed,  after  a  year  of  confusion.  He  reformed  the 
finances,  constructed  the  Colosseum,  gave  Latin  citizenship 
freely  to  the  provinces,  and  with  the  help  of  his  eldest  son  Titus, 
who  succeeded  him,  cai)tured  Jerusalem.  His  second  son 
Domitian,  who  followed  Titus,  lessened  the  importance  of  the 
senate,  and  made  himselt  an  absolute  ruler.  Abroad  he  added 
Britain  to  the  Empire.  Xerva  and  his  successor  Trajan  tried 
to  I  uild  up  the  free  population  of  Italy  by  supporting  children 
of  free  birth.     'I'rajan's  wars  widi  Dacia  and  Parthia  added  the 


222 


I((».\l  \\    lil>loi;V 


|)r(ivirices  of  Dacia,  AniKiiia,  McsoixitaMiia,  and  Assyria  to  the 
('iii})iR',  and  gaw  it  a  •inatc!  cxtc  nt  than  it  fvcr  liad  lu'loiv  or 
alter  his  time.  1  ladrian,  who  .sn<  ( ( ( .  Wd  IVajan,  is  distinguishi'd 
for  his  legal,  administrative,  and  nnhlarv  rclornis,  and  for  his 
interest  in  the  provinces.  He  ;:axe  np  the  ne\\ly  acfiuired  terri- 
tory in  Asia.  Tlie  iKaeeful  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  was  fol- 
lowed by  tli(>  V'  ars  villi  Parthia  and  tlie  IMarcomanni  which 
vexed  the  reiirn  of  IMarcus  Aurr^ii:  \  :ind  led  to  the  establish- 
ment of  barbarian  colonies  on  Uuhumi  .^oil,  and  the  developnuMit 
of  serfdom.  Tiie  decline  of  M>lf-governnient  in  the  second 
centurv,  the  bad  st:ite  vS  flic  finan  iiid  tl:e  prevalence  of  iii- 

siirrections  are  s^\;i[»t  >f  Uu.         dechi!e. 


(llAPrEl!   XIII 

IKOM   SElTLMirs  SKVKUrs'iO    (OXSTAXTIXK 

(A.  I).  hU-:^:\7) 

H..\v  Aurrlian  and  Dio.'lt'iinii  sav.-d  ih<'  i;m])ir.«  Iroiii  tUssohition- How 
l)iu.l.-ii:m  r.  Mr-ani/j-d  aii.l  .iivi.l.d  ih.-  I'jiii.ir.'  1  low  c.nslaiit  iiic  iiiovt'd  the 
s.'at.  of  LTovriiiiiriit  fr.tm  lv«.m.'io  i;> /.ant  ium.  and  how  Ix^  cam*'  to  rt'co^aiize 
<'lirisii;uiii  y. 

443.  Three  Prominent  Emperors  in  the  Third  Century. 

In  tile  confusion  which  reigns  throughout  tlie  enii)ire  in  the  third 
centiuT  three  iigurcs  stand  out  clearlv— Sej)iiniius  Severus  at 
the  beoinniuL^  of  tlie  jX'riod,  Aureliaii  and  Diocletian  toward  its 
close.  Each  of  tlu\se  thi(>(>  (in|HTo!s  checkiMJ  the  downfall  of  tlie 
empire,  and  gav<'  it  a  new  lease  of  life,  by  suppressing  insurrec- 
tions in  the  provinces,  by  driving  back  the  barbarians,  and  by 
reiorniintr  abuses  in  the  <''overiun(MiI. 


r-i 


444.  Military  Reforms  of  Septimius  Severus.  Se])timius 
Severus  distinguished  himself  esjU'cially  by  th<'  changes  which  lie 
made  in  ;he  civil  and  niililai-y  adminislrafion  and  in  the  laws. 
He  rendered  service  in  the  army  more  attractive^  by  making  the 
position  of  the  min«)r  oflic(>rs  more  hononible,  and  by  granting 
new  j)rivileges  to  private  soldiers  in  the  auxiliary  troops.  Fore- 
ujosl  among  the  piivileges  granted  were  Roman  citizenship, 
after  a  short  term  of  service,  and  recognition  of  the  mar- 
riatres  which  soldiers  had  contracted  with  native  W(mien  in 
the  provinces.  Septimius  Severus  added  three  legions  to  the 
army,  and  brought  it  to  a  high  degree  of  efhciency,  ;is  is  shown 
by  his  sm-cessful  war  against  Parthia  and  by  the  rcconciuesl 
of  Mesopotamia,  which,  it  will  l)e  remembered,  Hadrian  had 
given  uj).  'lliese  ;uhievements  wci'c  commemorated  in  the 
great  arch  wliich  still  stands  in  the  Forum.  P>ut  i)erha])s  his 
most  nof(  worlhv  service  in  def(Mise  of  the  em))ire  consisted  in 
his  li'organization  and  improvement  of  the  roads  and  in  their 
extension  along  the  northern  fiontier. 

223 


'2'2  \ 


K(>MA\    HlST(tRV 


445.  His  Legal  Reforms.  'I'liis  rm^h  is  most  rniitful  In  tlir 
cstaltlislinuMJt  of  iinportniit  l('<.i;;il  ])riii(ij)l(*s  .-111(1  in  tlic  reduction 
of  Hoiiian  law  to  a  logical  systtMii.  Tlie  knulcr  in  tlic  inovcnicnt 
was  the  (listin<:jiiislHMl  jurist  Pa|>ini;i:i  who  was  for  a  time  prefect 
of  tlie  |)retorian  guard.  I  iider  his  direction  tlic  great  rul(\s  of 
law  governing  inlieritaneo,  contracts,  loans,  and  similar  matters 
were  dev(^lo})ed  into  the  form  whicli  so  many  modern  nations 
have  ad(»j>ted. 

446.  The  Levelling  Process.    The  reduction  of  Italy  to 


TUL    VllCU  UF  tsElTIMIUS  SEVKKUS 


the  level  of  the  |)ro\ine*'^  g»»«'^  .-^leaduv  oil.  Troops  are  now  for 
tlie  first  tiiiH'  permanenlly  slalioiied  i:i  Italy,  and  the  emperor 
assumes  the  military  tide  of  proconsul  in  Italy  as  well  as  in  the 
pro\inces.  I'he  levelling  proee>^  i^  brought  to  completion  hy 
Uassianus,  ni<knamed  Caracalla,  the  succ<'s;or  of  Seplimius 
ScM-ru^,  \N  ho  hy  an  edict  in  212  makes  all  iuemeii  of  the  em- 
|»ire  lioman  eilizens.  Henceforth  Italians  and  provincials  are 
ecjual  hefore  the  law. 

447.  A  Century  of  Anarchy.     On  his  dealhhed  Septimius 


FROM    SEPTIMUS   SFA'ERt  S    To    CONSTAXTINE 


225 


Severus  had  stated  with  truth:  "I  received  the  commonwealth 
in  tlisorder;  1  leave  it  in  peace."  But  peace  and  ordiM*  were  of 
short  duration,  for  they  rested  on  the  fickle  su|)port  of  the  troops. 
By  the  army  Caracalla  was  overthrown,  and  his  successors 
Ma(Tinus,  Elagahalus,  and  Alexander  Se\erns.  It  is  unneces- 
sary for  our  purpose,  however,  to  trace  the  fortunes  of  all  the 
emperors  who  followed  one  another  in  ra[)id  succession  during 
this  century. 

448.  The  Reign  of  Gallienus  Typical.  The  reign  of  Galli- 
enus  from  200  to  2()S  is  in  some  respects  typical,  and  a  sketch  of 
it  will  give  one  a  clear,  though  perhaps  an  exaggerated,  ])icture 
of  the  state  of  affairs  during  the  entire  pei'iod  which  is  und(T 
(onsideration. 

449.  The  Incursions  of  the  Barbarians.  In  these  eiglit 
years  no  part  of  the  Roman  world,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
Africa  and  the  islands,  eseape(l  th<^  devastating  raids  of  the  bar- 
barians. In  the  East  tlie  Persians  had  made  a  |)risoncr  of 
\  ah'rian,  the  father  of  (iallienus  and  his  formei'  colleague,  and 
had  overrun  the  j)r()vinee  of  Syria.  In  the  valky  of  the  Damibe 
the  (lolhs  entered  Konuin  territory  from  the  north,  sup|)lemented 
their  land  cainj)aign  by  an  attack  from  the  sea  on  the  east,  ulti- 
mately pushed  down  as  far  as  Achaia,  and  plundered  Corinth 
and  Athens.  In  die  north  the  Alemanni  broke  through  the 
barriers  along  the  Ilhinc,  and  penelrateil  as  far  as  Ravenna  wiUi- 
out  meeting  serious  o|)|)()sition.  The  Franks  entered  Gaul, 
pressed  down  into  Spain,  and  even  made  their  way  across  the 
MedittTranean  to  Africa.  Tliese  incursions  were  essenliallv 
marauding  expeditions,  and  when  the  lust  for  booty  had  been 
satisfied,  the  barbarians  iisuallv  withdrew  as  s|)ee(lilv  as  the\ 
had  come.  No  serious  loss  of  territory,  therefore,  r(>sulted  from 
them,  l)ut  cities  wen;  destroyed,  the  country  was  laid  waste,  and 
commerce  in  manv  cases  was  ruined.  The  result  W[is  that  the 
resources  of  the  people,  already  scarcely  sufhcient  to  sni)])ort  tlu* 
burden  of  taxation  lai<l  upon  them,  were  still  further  impaired. 

450.  The  Rise  of  Independent  Rulers.     Another  evil  of 
the  century  which  rcjiched  its  climax  during  the  reign  of  Galli- 


■)•)  I 


ifoviw   iiisr(.i.'\ 


445.  His  Legal  Reforms.  Tlii^  rrlirn  is  inosi  rniilfnl  in  tlic 
cslaMisliim'nt  of  im|M>rt;nil  lr^':;il  piiiu  i|>lf>  iind  in  the  rc<lncli(m 
of  Koiiinii  l.'iu  to  ;i  loji'ical  >;  ^trni.  Tlic  Icadcf  in  llic  nioxcnicnt 
was  tlu'  (lislinu'uislit'd  JmvI-^I  l*a|iinia:i  w  lio  was  fur  a  lime  ])i'('f('ct 
of  the  prctorian  »^ua!-«l.  I  rulci-  lii>  diri-ctioii  the  ^rrat  rules  of 
law  j.';ovcriiini'"  iiilu'rilanco,  contracN,  loans,  and  similar  niallcrs 
Wi-n:  drv(lo|n-d  into  the  form  wliicli  s(»  manv  modci'ii  nations 
liavr  adoj)t(M|. 

446.  The  Levelling  Process.    The  re«lu(tion  of   Italy   lo 


iui     \i.(:u  or  iLi'iiMiLa  bLViatua 


llic  h-vcl  of  tln'  |>i'ovnice^  v'"<'^  -h-adnV  on.  'I  ro(>|»^  arr  now  t(.r 
the  (irsi  lime  jH-rmaiieiilly  -lationed  i:j  Ila!\,  and  the  empei'oi' 
a-^-nnu->  the  mililar\'  title  of  i»roeon>ul  in  llaly  a^  wdl  as  in  the 
j»ro\iiiees.  The  leNcIlini:  |^r^M■(•^^  i>  hrtHiu'ht  to  completion  hy 
l>assiaini>,  ni<  Iviianu'd  (araealla.  t!ie  >u<-eess«)r  of  Septimius 
Severn>,  who  liy  an  ediel  in  lM2make>  all  freemen  of  tin*  em- 
j>ir(>  Itoiiian  <ili/ens.  Henceforth  Italians  and  pi-ovincials  are 
(•(|lial  hefoi'e  tli<-  law  . 

447.  A  Century  of  Anarchy.     <  )ti  his  <K'aihl)e(l  Sepilinius 


I  iJnM    SFI'TIMH  S    SIAKIHS     l(  >    (  ONS  TA  XTl  N  K 


2^5 


Severus  had  stated  willi  truth:  "I  re«-ei\('d  the  eonnnonweallli 
in  disordci-;  I  leaxc  it  in  peace."  IJnt  peace  and  order  were  ('f 
short  duration,  h)r  they  I'ested  )n  the  fickle  support  of  the  troops. 
By  the  army  ('araealla  was  o\'erthrown,  and  his  successors 
Maerinus,  l^'da^'ahalns,  an!  .Vlexander  Se\-erus.  It  is  unneces- 
sary for  our  pur|)ose,  however,  lo  lra<-e  the  h>rlimes  of  all  the 
empei'ors  who  followeti  one  another  in  rapid  succession  durinj;' 
this  eeulury. 

448.  The  Reign  of  Gallienus  Typical,  'i'he  rei«,ni  of  (;al]i- 
emis  from  2(>l)  lo  '2(VS  is  in  some  i-cspcets  ty])ical,  and  a  sketch  of 
it  will  ^ive  one  a  clear,  thou*;h  perha|)s  an  e\aji,<i;e rated,  picture 
of  the  state  of  all'aiivs  durin<i;  the  entire  period  which  is  under 
(•(•nsidcralion. 

449.  The  Incursions  of  the  Barbarians.  In  ihes(^  eiu^ht 
years  no  j)arl  of  the  Roman  world,  wilh  the  possilde  exccplion  of 
Africa  and  the  islands,  esca|)e«l  ihe  devaslalin<ji;  raids  of  the  har- 
Itarians.  In  the  I^asl  the  Persians  had  made  a  |)i-isonei"  of 
\alerian,  tlie  father  (tf  (lalliemis  and  his  former  collea;j,ue,  and 
had  (►verrun  the  province  of  Syria.  In  the  valley  of  thcDanuhe 
the  ( lolh.N  enlered  Ivomaii  tcirilory  from  the  north,  supplemented 
their  land  cam|)aija:n  hy  an  attack  from  the  sea  on  the  east,  ulti- 
mately pushed  down  as  far  as  Achaia,  and  phmdereil  Corinth 
and  Athens.  In  the  iiortii  the  Alemaimi  broke  throu;2:li  the 
harriers  alouii' ihe  lihine,  ;ind  juMielrati  d  as  far  as  Ravenna  with- 
out mcetino-  serious  opposition.  The  I'ranks  entered  (iaul, 
pressed  down  into  Spain,  and  even  made  iheir  way  across  the 
Ah'dilerranean  lo  Africa.  These  incnivsions  were  essenlialK 
ujaraudiiui;  expediticms,  and  when  ihe  lust  for  booty  had  been 
satisfied,  the  bai'barians  usually  withdrew  as  speedil\-  as  the\ 
h;id  come.  No  .serious  loss  of  tei"i"ilory,  therefore,  resiilled  from 
them,  but  cities  were  dcsli'oyed,  the  country  was  laid  \\aste,  and 
conuuerc'c  in  many  cases  was  ruined.  Tlie  result  was  that  t!ie 
resources  of  the  ju'ople,  already  scarcely  suflicient  to  suppoi't  the 
burden  of  taxation  laid  upon  tliem,  were  still  further  im|\Mlred. 

450.  The  Rise  of  Independent  Rulers.     Another  evil  ol 
the  <('n!urv  which  reached  its  climax  durlnij:  the  i-ciiru  of  Galii- 


_!'J<. 


U(»\l\\    lllsT(.i:V 


{■nils  :ini|  sccnu'il  !<•  |»r>rtrii(|  llir  N|M'c(ly  < lismciiilH'niHMil  of  the 
riiijiiic  \\;i>  llic  rise  of  i>i(t\  iik  i.il  ;':(»\(rii<ti->  lo  l!ic  |>(isili()ii  nt 
iii(lc|H'n(lriil  rulers,  and  the  icco-'.nilion  ol"  llicif  claims  l>y  ihc 
crntral  tiovrrnnicnt.  'i'licsc  nalionalist  nmscintMits,  it"  we 
may  so  Icrm  llicm.  li'ivw  very  naturally  onl  of  llic  slate  of  alVairs 
in  man\'  of  llie  ]»r<»\inee>.  In  llicir  origin  and  <liara«lei'  IJiey 
were  not  imlike  tlie  pai'lially  >ncee>>fnl  attempt  wliieli  SerliH'ius 
made  in  (lie  litst  century  hefntv  our  era  to  set  u|)  a  ;^'overnmenl 
of  liis  own  in  Spain.  M'lie  inlercNl^  of  iIh*  people  witliiii  a 
;j:i\en  province  or  li'roup  of  j»ro\inc(>  wei'c  the  ^ame;  tlieir  toes 
\\{'\H-  llic  -:imc,  \\y  die  !j:i i-lia riaus  alonif  their  froiiliers,  and, 
since  the  CI  iilral  ;^cm  ci  iim.  ei  couid  nnj  prolcd  them  clhM-t ually, 
tlic\    fell   il    I  -ar\    to  or;i'ani''c  h»r  iheir  own  defens(«.    Both 

the  prct\  in<ial>  and  llie  soldiers  locked  to  the  i:'o\-ernors  ol  iheii* 
re>pecli\<'  pr(»\  ince>  for  leadiM'ship.  I  ntlcr  a  w  cak  oi-  niipo|>ular 
emper(.r,  therefore,  it  was  an  c.i  :\-  ihinj^"  for  an  amliiliou>  i:cneral 
ti>  i^^nore  llie  aulhorily  of  Koin.  ,  ..iid  to  u>iii-p  the  pcjwci's  and 
titles  of  an  independent  ruler. 

451.  Gaul  and  Palmyra  Assert  their  Independence. 
The  mosi  iKtlalile  ea><*s  of  ihe  s«trl  are  tlHtsc  of  Poslumus  in  ( lani 
and  <  >daenathns  in  Palmyra.  roslumns  si't  up  a  jj,(»vei-nmeiU 
of  his  own  in  <  iani,  eslahiished  a  i-ouil,  ami  to<»k  the  lilies  ol 
consul  an«l  [M»ntife\  maximns.  As  Utv  <  )(knMialhus,  he  was  j^ivcii 
entiii-  cliarue  i>{  Asia  wilii  the  luircst i-ided  ri.u'ht  lo  a|)poiul 
;iiAciiioi-s  and  p-m  rals.  lI*-  ami  his  \\ih'  /enoitia  assinued  the 
titles  of  kin;::  ami  <pieen  of  l*almyra.  ;ind  after  liei-  liushand's 
death,  /euohia  ilire\v  olf  all  semlilancc  <ii  >iiohii--ion  lo  Ivoniau 
authoi-ity,  and  e\en  wei^t  to  the  exteiil  of  invading'  and  suhduin^* 
HiT.vpt. 

452.  Aurelian,  270-275,  Restores  Unity.  It  was  Aure 
hail,  the  eeond  of  thi'i:*nal  emperor^  of  the  ihird  «-entury,  who 
savi'd  tlM'enipii'c  from  the  dissolution  w  hich  ihi-eat«'ned  it.  l''<^y pt 
was  r«-eo\cred;  Palmyra  \\"as  cal»lureil  after  an  hei-oie  resistance; 
its  people  wei*e  <i'iven  io  th<-  sword,  and  the  rily  ^o  c()m[)let('ly 
destroyvi!  that  exeii  its  site  was  unknown  h)r  centuries.  With 
lioman  authority  re<-(»L!'ih'/ed  once  more  in  the  I''as|.  the  ejn|>ere>i 


FKoM   si.eiiMns  SI  \  i.iMs  To  (  (;\--'!\\  11  m:  227 


(hi"(  cfed  ltl'^  allention  to  ^iauh  Telrieiis,  who,  afle?-  a  hrief 
p(  i-ittd  of  e< Ml f iision.  hail  snce« MM lc(l  I'oslnmus  as  einj>erorof  ( Jaul 
had  ailded  l>i-ilaiii  and  northern  Spain  to  his  dominions,  hut  the 
army  vol  Ijcymid  his  control  ;iiid  ••ommitleil  such  excesses  ihat 
l)(»lli  lie  and  the  people  of  |he  province  receivcil  .\iirelian  \vilh 
open  ai-nis.  In  the  maj^'ui (icent  triumph  \v  hich  .\in-elian  cele- 
hraled  on  his  return  to  Uome,  Zdiohia  and  'relricus  hoth 
appcarcil  in  the  train  (»f  the  con(|neror.  I'he  KasI  and  the 
\\  es|  aekiiow  Ic.l 'I'.l  once  moj*e  the  anthorilx'  of  I'ome,  -ind  the 
unity  of  die  eiiipiic  wasau'ain  asscrii'd.  And  yvi  il  w  a •>  uiuuiuiis 
foi"  the  future  thai  lliis 
s.ieic  empero!'  w  ho  had 
repelled  tin-  harhariaiis, 
ami  put  dow  n  preleiid- 
eis  I  h  ro  11 1'  Im»  u  I  llie 
l-oinan  world,  lli«ai:'lit 
il  lUMcssary  to  prolect 
tin-  cilv  of  I  'ome  ilsclf 
ai'iiiii  .1  the  possihie  in- 
cursions of  harhariaiis 
hy  huildim^  ahoiil  il  the 
^•reat  wail  which  slill 
stands  to  commemorate 
iii-  rei;'"n. 

453.  Some  Brilliant 
Women  of  the  Third 
Century.     No  accouut 

of    the    I  h  i  Vi\    centurv 

would  he  coinplele  v\  illi- 

ollt     some     meiilioii     of 

the  Ijrilliant  women   wjio  played  so  ••onspicuous  a   p;irt  in  tiie 

histoid"    of    the    pei'iod.       h'oreinost     amon;';     them     was     Julia 

I  )omna,  her  si>|ci-  Jiiliii   Macsa.  and    her   niece    Julia.   Mamaca. 

454.  Julia  Domna.  Julia  ])(»  nna  ihe  wife  of  Septimius 
Se\erus,was  a  nali\<-  of  Syria,  of  low  slalion,  l)Ut  she  was  a 
Woman  of    iieli  iiitclleetua!  jK»wer  and  i)olitical  ahility  thai  slie 


JULI.\   DOMNA 


226 


Iir.\l\\    HISTORY 


enus  and  scciiHMl  lo  jM.rtnid  [\\v  s[)vvi\y  (IIsiiummIkm-uhmU  of  the 
cinpirt'  \\a>  tlic  rise  i»l'  j»r(t\iii<'ial  «.!:()\('niors  lo  Hie  |»osilion  ot 
iii(lf|H'H(k'iit  rulers,  and  the  rfco;.^nition  i>f  their  <laini.s  by  the 
eentrai  m»v('niiiient.  These  iiatioiiahst  movements,  if  wr 
nuiv  so  term  iIkmii,  ^rew  vcrv  natiirallv  out  of  the  state  of  affairs 
in  many  of  the  pnninees.  In  their  origin  and  charaeter  tliey 
were  not  unhke  the  partially  successful  attem))t  whieh  Sertorius 
made  in  tin-  first  eentury  l)cforc  our  era  to  set  Uj»  a  government 
of  his  oun  in  Spain.  The  interests  of  the  |)eopIe  within  a 
given  proxincc  or  gr(»up  of  ])rovincc>  Wi-vv  the  same;  tlieir  toes 
wen-  the  same,  viz.,  tlie  l)arl)arians  along  their  frontiers,  and, 
since  llie  central  g»)Vermu«-nt  could  not  lu-ofecf  them  ell'eelually, 
thev  feh  it  necessar\'  lo  organi/i'  for  their  own  defense.  Uolh 
the  provincials  and  the  soldiers  looked  to  tile  governors  of  their 
respective  provinces  for  lea<lership.  Under  a  weak  or  un|)oi)nlar 
em|>eror,  therefore,  it  was  an  easy  tiling  for  an  ambitions  general 
to  ignore  the  authoni;  ..f  Home,  and  to  usurp  the  powers  and 
titles  of  an  indepi'iident  lulcr. 

451.   Gaul    and    Palmyra   Assert   their   Independence. 

The  mo>l  n«»tul>le  cases  of  the  sorl  are  those  of  rostunnis  in  (ianl 
and  <  )daenalhus  in  Palmyra.  Postumns  set  up  a  govermnent 
of  liis  own  in  ( Jaul,  eslal»lislie<l  a  conrl,  and  took  the  titles  of 
consul  and  pontifex  maximns.  As  for  <  )daenalhus,  he  was  given 
entire  cliarge  of  Asia  with  tlic  unrestricted  right  to  ap])oinl 
governors  and  generals.  He  and  his  Vsife  Zcnohia  assumed  the 
tides  of  king  and  (jne<Mi  of  Palmyra,  and,  afler  her  hnsl)and's 
death,  Zenohia  tlii-ew  otV  all  srinhlauce  ai'  suhmission  lo  Roman 
authority,  and  even  wer^t  to  tlie  exlenl  of  invading  and  suhduing 
Egyi>t. 
462.  Aurelian,   270-275,  Restores  Unity.     It  was  Aure- 

lian,  the  second  of  the  great  emjicrors  of  the  third  eentury,  who 
saved  the  empire  from  tlie  (lissolulion  w  liich  threatened  it.  Egy])t 
wa>  I'ccoveretl;  Palmyra  w a ^  caplurcfl  aflt-r  an  lieroie  resistance; 
its  people  were  given  to  the  sword,  and  the  city  so  completely 
^],^.^fn»ved  thai  even  its  site  was  unknown  for  centuries.  With 
Roman  anlh*)rily  iccoitiizecl  once  more  in  llie  East,  the  emperor 


FROM    SEPTTMH  S    SKVKHVS    TO    (OXSTAXTIXE 


227 


directed  his  attention  to  (Jaul.  Tetricus,  wlio,  after  a  I>rief 
period  of  confusion,  had  succeeded  l*ostunnis  as  emperorof  (laul 
had  added  iirilain  and  northern  Spain  to  his  dominions,  l>ut  the 
army  got  bcycmd  his  control  and  eonnnitted  such  excesses  tliat 
l)olh  lie  and  the  people  of  the  province  received  Aurelian  with 
oj)cn  arms.  In  the  nuigniticent  triumph  which  Aurelian  cele- 
hrated  on  hi^  return  to  Rome,  Zenohia  and  Tetricus  Imtli 
ai)j)eare(l  in  the  train  of  the  concpicror.  The  East  and  the 
\\est  acknowledged  once  more  the  authority  of  Kome,  and  the 
unity  «)f  the  empire  was  again  asserted.  And  yet  it  was  ominous 
h)r  the  future  that  this 
sauK-  emperor  w  ho  had 
I'cpelled  the  harharians, 
and  put  down  pivtend- 
ers  I  h  roughou  t  the 
l-onian  world,  thought  I 
it  ncccssaiT  to  protect 
the  city  of  Pome  itself 
against  the  possililc  in- 
cursions of  harharians 
hv  huilding  ahoul  it  the 
great  wall  which  still 
stands  to  connneniorate 
his  reign. 

453.  Some  Brilliant 
Women  of  the  Third 
Century.  No  account 
of   the    t  h  i  ?'<1    century 

would  he  complete  \\  itll- 

out    some    mention    of 

the  l)rilliant  women  who  played  so  conspicuous  a  part  in  the 

history    of    tlie    period.       Foremost    among    them    was     Julia 

Domiui,  her  sister  Julia  Maesa,  and   her  iiie<('   Julia  INIamaea. 

454.  Julia  Domna.  .fulia  Donna  the  wife  of  Sei)timius 
Severus,  was  a  native  of  Syria,  of  low  station,  l)ut  she  was  a 
woman  of  such  intellectual  power  and  political  ability  that  she 


JULIA  DOMNA 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


ar(|uiiv.l  a  -ivat  inllurii.r  over  \wv  IiusIkiihI,  and  (»ii  liis  ileatli 
diivcti'd  ill  lar^^r  iiiraMiiv  tlir  aliaii^  ..f  >lat.-  iindrr  licrsoii,  d.c 
enipnor  Caracalla.  (/aracalla  was  ovcrdirowii  l.y  his  piv- 
loriaii  pirtVct  Macniiiis,  and  Julia  l)<.niiia  was  Uanislird. 

455.  Julia  Maesa.  Partly  to  av(H.^r  hn-  sister,  and  i.artly 
to  advance  tlu'  fortunt^  ..f  lur  ^rand^on  Klat^ahains,  Jnlia 
Miu'sa  put  forth  all  her  cllurl>  t-M-ncompa^.^  the  d(.\vnfall  of 
:Ma<rinus.  Witliin  a  yrar  she  a.r.nni.lishid  her  pnrpose  and 
also  secured  the  succession  for  lur  ^n-andson.  Throu,i!;hout  hi> 
rei^rn  she- was  tlie  ]»o\vrr  I.ehind  \Uv  ihn.ne,  ii'oin*,^  so  far  as  to 
take  pari  even  in  tiie  deliberatii.ns  of  the  -nafe.  When  siie  saw 
that  the  downfall  of  Klai^al.alns  wa^  iniinineiil,  she  persnaded 
him  to  adopt  lier  other  <«:rands(.n  Alexander  Severus.  the  son  <.l 
JuHa  Maniaea.  In  this  way  the  real  j>owcr  in  the  state,  which 
had  passed  from  Jnlia  l)omnat<»  Jnlia  Maesa,  was  hy  her  trans- 
mitted to  Julia  Maniaea. 

456.  Julia  Mamaea.  Mamaea  was  a  worthy  sn*  «vvs(.r  of 
her  two  kinswomen.  Slu-  dev,.lcd  herself  enern;elically  to  the 
eihication  of  lier  son.  Latt«r,  when  he  assnriied  the  reinsof  j'«»v- 
crnnient,  slie  dire<-ted  his  jH.lilieal  i)oli<-y,  and  her  likeness  ap- 
pears witii  his  on  the  <-oins  (»f  the  period. 

457.  Victorina.  The  three  women  of  wh(.m  we  have  just 
been  speakin»r  .listin<4uishe<l  tliemselves  hy  their  skill  in  slate- 
craft.  Vict(jrina  and  ZAiiohia,  while  not  laekin*.^  in  iM)litical 
capacity,  were  also  military  Imdrrs  of  marked  ability.  X'ictorina 
was  the  mother  of  the  predc^c^^or  of  Tetricus,  and  really  .«,^ov- 
erned  Gaul  durin*::  her  -(.n's  reign.  On  his  death  she  advanced 
Tetricus  to  the  throne.  Her  influence  with  the  Gallic  army  is 
shown  clearly  by  the  affectionate  titles  which  the  soldiers  (•:ave 
her  and  bv  the  fact  that,  after  her  death,  Tetricus,  as  we  have 
already  noticed,  was  utterly  unable  to  luJd  them  in  control. 
Her  fame  luid  p(>netrated  even  to  the  <  )ri(>nt,  ;md  Zenobia  at  one 
time  jJanned  to  form  an  alliance  with  her. 

458.  Zenobia.  Zenobia  lierself  i>  the  mo.^t  piclurcs.pic 
fij.i:ure  of  (he  ccMtury.  S!h-  was  as  famous  for  her  Ix-auty  as  she 
was  for  h(  r  accomplishments  and  lor  her  political  and  nnhlary 


FROM    SEPTLMirs    SKVKIU  S   To    (()\!=;T.\XTINE 


229 


talents.  She  spoke  readily  (ircck,  Latin,  and  the  lan^^uages  of 
all  the  peoples  about  Palmyra.  She  took  a  lively  interest  in 
literature  and  phiIo.soi)hy  as  well  as  in  the  sterner  pursuits  of 
war  and  the  chase.  She  made  Palmyra  a  great  eominereial 
centre.  At  one  time  her  empire  included  even  Egypt,  and  no 
military  enterprise  which  Aurelian  undertook  proved  so  diffi- 
cult and  hazardous  as  her  overtln-ow  and  the  capture  of  her 
cjipital. 

459.  Diocletian  Abandons  the  Theory  of  the  Dyarchy. 

If  we  stoj)  to  consider  the  i)olitical  history  of  the  {)eriod  WQ  shall 
find  that  the  position  of  the  senate  was  what  the  em})eror  chose 
to  make  it.  Tlie  senate  was  still  nominally  a  })artner  in  the  gov- 
ernment, but  in  realitv  exercised  onlv  such  ])ow'ers  as  he  was 
willing  to  delegate  to  it.  Diocletian,  who  ascended  the  thr()ne 
in  2S4,  boldly  discardetj  even  the  theory  that  it  ruled  jointly 
with  the  emperor,  and  frankly  embodied  in  tlu;  constitution 
the  changes  wliich  three  centuries  had  wrought  in  the  bo<ly 
politic. 

460.  The  Senate  Reduced.     He  j-ave  np  tlu^  j)ractice  of 

consulting  it  on  matters  aiVecting  iIk^  (Mnj)ire,  and  i.ssued  ;dl  laws 
and  edicis  in  the  name  of  liimself  and  his  colleague.  It  became, 
therefore,  nothing  more  than  the  connnon  council  of  the  city  of 
Rome,  and  those  who  held  the  magistracies  were  rcducctl  to 
the  position  of  nnmicipal  officials. 

461.  The  Two  AugUSti.  Under  Diocletian's  scheme  of  gov- 
ernment the  empire  was  to  be  ruled  jointly  by  liimself  and  Maxi- 
mian,  whom  he  made  his  colleague.  Tliey  bore  the  title  of 
Augusli,and  all  edicts  were  issued  in  the  name  of  both,  and  all 
appointments  to  office  were  thought  of  as  coining  from  them 
conjointly. 

462.  The  Two  Caesars.  Sliortly  after  his  accession  he  and 
Maximian  chose  two  Gaesars  who  stood  just  below^  the  Augusti 
in  [)oint  of  dignity.  The  |)urp().se  of  this  arrangement  was  to 
provide  for  the  succession,  since  it  w^as  a  part  of  Diocletian's 
plan  that,  when  one  of  the  Augusti  died  or  resigp.ed,  his  position 
should  be  taken  at  once  bv  one  of  the  Gaesars. 


230 


ROMAX    HISTORt 


463.  The  August!  Rule  in  Different  Parts  of  the  Empire. 

Accordinir  to  the  thc.ry  ol'  Diocletian's  schcinr  of  govcniiiieiit 
the  two  Au^ni>ti  were  to  rule  the  UoiiKin  world  jointly,  hut  in 
point  of  hiet  Diocletian  made  Xicoiiicdia  hi>  eai)ital  and,  with 
his  Caesar,  ruled  the  East;  while  Maxiniian,  niakin^^  :Milan  his 
seat  of  o-(,venuiient,  with  tlie  assistance  of  liis  Caoar,  p.verned 
ill   the  West. 

464.  The    Civil    Administration.     An    essential    part()f 

Diocletian's  plan  was  tlie  more  eomplete  M'paralion  of  the  civil 
and  mililarv  administration^.  At  the  head  of  the  civil  admin- 
istration were  four  pretorian  prefects  who  resided  respectively  at 
Constantinople,  Sirmium,  Milan,  and  Trevc>,  or  d'rier.  Their 
prefectures  were  divided  into  dio<-eses,  ;ind  tliesi- sul.-divided  into 

|)rovinces. 

465.  The  Military  Administration.  At  the  head  of  tlie 
niilitarv  administration  there  were  from  hve  to  ten  oflicials,  and 
under  them  were  the  territoriareommanders,  Myled  J//rr.s' .)r  co///- 
/7^.s•,  hut  tlKM///m///.s-,<)r  unit()f  military  administration,  did  not  m  all 
easesc(»rrespond  with  the/)/-or;//r/V/,e.r  unit  of  civil  administration. 

466.  The  Old  and  the  New  in  Diocletian's  Government. 
Diocletian  did  two  thinj^^s.  lie  ^^ave  up  the  fiction  that  the 
^r,)vernm<>nt  was  anylliiniz-  elsr  than  a  pure  monarchy,  and  he 
developr-d  into  a  well-halanccd  .-  ^i- m  methods  of  administration 
which  liis  predecessors  had  introduced.  It  is  clear  that  there 
was  very  littl<*  in  hi^  >cli.'me  which  wa>  essentially  n<-w.  The 
senate  and  the  ma<ristrates  had  a!  <.nc  time  ruled  the  Uoiniin 
worhl.  Diocletian  limited  the  ex.Tcise  of  llieir  ])owers  to  the 
eity  of  Home,  hut  in  doino;  this  he  wa>  merely  \m\v/uv^  to  eom- 
plelion  a.  process  which  had  heen  o-oino;  on  from  the  time  of 
Auo:ustus.  He  shared  his  autliority  witli  a  eollea^^nie,  but  this 
i)lan  had  Ihm'U  tried  as  early  as  the  rei^ni  of  Mareus  Aiirelius. 
It'niay  even  hi  i v>rarded  as  a  revival,  under  a  different  form, 
of  the  dual  system  of  the  consulshii).  Tlie  separation  of  tlie 
civil  and  military  administralions  was  a  natural  out^n'owth  of 
the  earefullv  graded  system  of  ofhcfs  which  Hadrian  introdueed, 
;,ndua>  i.rol)ahly  not   unkimwn    in  s<»me  parts    of   the  Roman 


FROM   SEI'TLMItS   SKVEKUS   TO   CONSTANTINE 


231 


empireal  least  a  half  eentury  or  more  Ix^fore  the  time  of  Dioeletian. 
I'lie  practice  of  eonfeiTin<j^  the  title  of  Caesar  on  the  intended 
successor  to  tlie  throne  also  goes  baek  to  the  reign  of  Hadrian. 
Dioeletian  made  the  provinees  very  mueli  smaller  than  they  had 
l)een,  largely  to  diminish  the  power  of  |)roviiieial  governors, 
1)11 1  in  doing  so  he  was  only  earrying  out  a  policy  wliieh  Domitian 
and  his  sueeessors  had  adopted.  In  all  these  matters  he  was 
merely  developing  institutions  wliieh  his  predeeessors  had  estab- 
lished. The  new  ])oint  of  greatest  im[)ortance  wliieh  he  intro- 
duced was  the  division  of  the  empire  into  two  parts.  Theoreti- 
eally  sueli  a  division  was  not  eonteinplated  in  his  plan,  as  we 
have  notieed,  but  when  one  Augustus  estaljlished  his  liead- 
([uarters  in  the  East,  and  the  other  in  the  West,  a  partition  of 
the  em|>ire  or  a  struggle  for  supremaey  was  reasonably  sure  to 
be  the  outcome  of  the  arrangement.  Such  a  turn  of  aifairs  came 
at  once,  for  in  '.'A)7,  two  years  after  Diocletian's  abdication,  there 
were  si.\  rulers  elaiming  the  title  of  Augustus. 

467.  Constantine  Sole  Emperor,  A.  D.  324-337.  After 
sixteen  years  of  eivil  war  and  dissension  Constantine  the  (ireat 
restored  harmony  by  uniting  the  whole  empire  under  his  sway. 
For  two  other  ehanges  of  great  im})ortanee  als(j  his  reign  is  note- 
worthy— for  the  reeognition  of  Christianity  as  a  legal  religion, 
and  for  the  transfer  of  the  seat  of  government  from  Rome  to 
Byzantium. 

468.  The  Growth  of  Christianity.  Christianity  spread 
most  rapidly  in  tlie  Orient  and  in  Italy.  In  the  East  the  Serip- 
turcs  Were  widely  circulated  in  Creek,  which  was  the  tongue  of 
cultivated  people,  and  in  Syriae,  which  the  lower  classes  used. 
For  the  West  translations  had  been  made  into  L.'itin.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  third  century  Tertullian  boasts:  ''We  are  a 
p(H>ple  of  yesterday,  and  yet  we  have  filled  every  j)lace  belonging 
to  you — cities,  islands,  castles,  towns,  assemblies,  your  very 
camp,  your  tribes,  companies,  j)alace,  senate,  forum.  We 
leave  you  your  tem})les  only."  This  is  undoubtedly  an  exag- 
geration, but  the  new  rehgion  made  raj)i(I  progress.  It  was 
introdueed  into  Gaul  in  the  middle  of  the  second  centur\-,  and 


23: 


lioMAN     1 11. STORY 


into  Spain  in  the  followin^i;  ctMitiiry.  Jt  had  iikkIc  such  headway 
in  Africa  that  a  synod  held  in  northern  Africa  about  a.  i>.  2">r), 
was  attended  l)y  seventy-one  l)ishoi>s  and  preshyters.  It  has 
been  estimated  that  tliere  were  from  fifty  thousand  to  >ixly 
thousand  Christians  in  Rome  in  the  middle  of  the  third  century, 
and  not  much  hiter  we  hear  of  missionaries  along  the  Rhine,  on 
the  Danuhian  frontier,  and  even  in  lirilain. 

469.  The  Christians  Suflfer  Persecution.  The  govern- 
ment made  spasmodic  eiforls  to  check  the  growth  of  (luistianity, 
and  eluirch  historians  reckon  ten  general  persecutions,  the  first 
one  Ix'ing  under  Nero,  and  the  last  and  mot  severe  one  under 
Diocletian.  At  first  the  state  contented  itself  with  the  deslrue- 
tion  of  Christian  books,  with  tlie  Itanishmcnt  of  the  Christians, 
the  confiscation  of  their  property,  and  the  infliction  of  cor[>oral 
|)unishment.  These  measures  not  proving  clfective,  many  who 
persisted  in  their  refusal  to  oiler  incense  to  the  gods  were  i)Ul  to 
death. 

470.  Reasons  for  the  Government's  Hostility.  Some  <.f 
the  reasons  for  the  hostility  of  the  government  we  have  already 
noticed.  As  lime  went  on,  othc'-  eharacleri<lies  of  the  new  faith 
excited  distrust,  notably  the  unwillingness  of  the  (  hri.stian.s  lu 
serve  in  the  army,  and  the  development  of  the  church  into  a  com- 
pact, well-organized  institution.  The  connnunieiints  were 
gradually  organizing  everyuhere  into  societies  which  met  in 
basilicas,  or  hirge  halls  set  apart  for  meetings.  These  churches 
acquired  |)roperty  which  the  clergy  administered.  Over  the 
clergy  were  the  bishops  who  wi're  a[)pointed  for  life,  and  the 
bishops  in  a  provin(  e  were  in  turn  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bi.shop  who  had  liis  scat  in  the  capital  of  thi'  province,  and  was 
known  as  the  meli\.i'ulitan,  or  later  as  archbisliop,  while  finally 
the  metropolitans  were  coming  to  acknowledge  the  su})cri(»r 
authorit}-  of  the  bishop  of  Koine. 

471.  Galerius's  Edict  of  Toleration  in  A.  D.  311.  It  was 
iindoubtedlv  this  develo|)nient  of  a  state  witliin  the  state  which 
excited  the  alarm  of  many  of  the  enqjcrors.  Rut,  since  Chrisli- 
anity  kei)t  on  growing  in  .s[)ite  of  the  efforts  which  the  govermnent 


FROM    SEPTIMIUS    SKVEKl  S    T( »    (OXSTANTINE 


233 


made  to  hold  it  in  check,  the  emperors  of  the  fouith  century 
decided  to  reverse  their  policy,  and  to  recognize  Christianity 
publicly.  They  hoped  to  secure  its  sup[)ort  for  the  throne,  or 
perha])s  we  may  say  that  it  was  for  the  mutual  interest  of  the 
emperor  and  the  Cln-istians  to  come  to  an  understanding.  The 
first  defmite  step  in  this  direction  seems  to  have  been  an  edict 
which  Galerius  issued  in  311  permitting  the  Christians  to  worship 
undisturbed  and  to  rebuild  their  churches. 
472.  Constantine's     Conversion     to    Christianity.     But 


Tin:  TRIUMPHAL   AliCH    OF   CONSTANTINK 


persecution  of  the  Christians  still  continued  in  some  ])arts  of  the 
empire,  and  it  was  left  for  Constantine  to  secure  for  diem  com- 
plete toleration,  and  byadoi)ting  its  creed  himself  to  make  Chris- 
tianity in  a  way  the  religion  of  the  state.  Tradition  attributes 
his  friendly  attitude  not  to  considerations  of  state  but  to  a  vision 
whicli  he  saw.  Eusel)ius  his  biographer  tells  us  that  on  the  day 
before  the  great  battle  which  he  fought  with  his  rival  Maxentius, 


|£(i\l  \\     lllsroKV 


iiitr*  S|>aiii  ill  flit'  fol lowing-  tctitiiry.  ll  liml  iiiiuir  Midi  licadwny 
ill  Africa  tlial  a  miumI  livitl  in  iiortlii-rii  Alri<a  al»oul  v.  \k  '2^)'), 
\va>  allriuk'd  )>}  M-vnity-oiR'  liisliojis  and  |»R'sl«yliTs.  It  lias 
Ik'cii  ('.stiiiialc<l  lliat  tln/iv  wen-  fn.m  lil'ly  iIk.iisiikI  ti»  .sixty 
llioiisand  Clirisiians  in  Uonic  in  tlir  niiddlr  of  tlic  lliird  rcntury. 
and  nut  nnidi  later  ^^  •'  'I'-ar  <tf  missionaries  a!*»n;j.-  the  lUiine,  on 
the  Danuhian  fronliei,  and  e\en  in  liritain. 

469.  The    Christians    Suffer    Persecution.    'Hie    ^overn- 

'iient  made  >|ia.sinndie  elTorts  te»  <lieek  the  j^row  th  of  <  'hrisliaiiity, 
and  eliureli  historian^  reekcjii  ten  ;:eneral  perse,  ntion-,  the  hrst 
one  heinir  under  Nero,  and  the  last  and  most  seveie  »>iie  nndei" 
l)i(.e!etian.  At  Hrst  the  state  eonteiili  d  it^lf  with  the  «h\slrne- 
tion  of  Christian  hooks,  widi  the  hanishnieiit  <tf  I'.ie  ('hristiaiis, 
the  eoidiseation  of  dieir  |)ro|>erty,  and  the  inlhetion  of  eorporal 

juinislnneiit,     'I1u-se  measur* n..t  |.n.\  in*:  elV«-elive,  many  w  h<i 

I)eisi.sted  in  their  refusal  to  olh-r  iii<H-nse  tn  the  n'ods  were  \ni\  to 
dealh. 

470.  Reasons  for  the  Government's  Hostility.    Some  <.f 

the  reasons  for  the  hn>tilily  of  llie  !.':<»\ernmenl  ue  lia\<'  alreaily 
noticed.  As  time  went  on,  oihe'-  eharacterislics  of  the  new  lailh 
excited  distrust,  nojaltly  tin-  nnw  illintrnes-  of  the  ("hrisiian-.  to 
serve  in  the  army,  and  the  dcvi-lopmeiil  of  the  ehui-eh  into  a  com- 
pact, well-orpini/.cd  institution.  The  communicant^  were 
j^raihialK"  or;^ani/int:  e\erywher<-  iiite.  >oei<>ties  \\  hieh  met  in 
lia-ilicas,  or  lar^e  halls  set  apart  h)r  mectiiijj;s.  The^e  elimclu  •. 
aetiuired  property  which  the  cli--  '•\-  a<hiiinistcre<l.  <  )\('r  the 
elerji:v  were  the  bishops  who  wen  appointed  foi-  hie,  and  the 
hi.shoijs  in  a  pi-ovince  wci'c  in  turn  under  the  jurisdiction  ol  the 
bisliop  who  ha«l  his  seat  in  the  capital  of  tlie  province,  and  was 
known  as  the  metropolitan,  or  later  as  arehl.i^hop,  while  finally 
the  metropolitans  were  «  nminu-  to  a<'knowledL^e  the  superior 
authority  of  the  bishop  of  liome. 

471.  Galerius's  Edict  of  Toleration  in  A.  D.  311.  It  wa.s 
undoubtedly  tliis  developuient  of  a  state  within  the  state  which 
excited  die  alarm  of  m.-mv  of  t!ie  em])crors.  lint,  since  Christi- 
anitv  ke|»t  un  ^n>\\  in^  i.:  spite  of  the  elfurts  which  the  ;^o\ei-innenl 


l-KOM    SKI'Tl.M  HS    SIAI.i:!  S    To    (  <)\S  F  A  \  I'l  .\  K 


0'>0 


made  to  hold  it  in  clu'ck,  the  <Mnpci-ois  of  the  hiuilh  century 
de<  ided  to  reverse  their  ])oli<y,  and  to  reco^-nize  Christianity 
jMibliclv.  They  hoi)ed  to  .secure  its  sujiporl  for  the  throne,  or 
perhaps  we  may  say  that  it  was  h)r  the  mutual  iuten'st  of  the 
emperor  and  the  Christians  to  come  to  an  understanding'.  The 
first  (Kdinite  step  in  this  direclion  .seems  to  have  been  an  edict 
which  (Jalerius  issued  in  ;n  1  luMinittino;  the  Christiau.s  to  worshij) 
undisturbed  and  to  rebuild  tlieir  elnn'chcs. 
472.  Constantine's     Conversion     to     Christianity.     But 


TIM.     llill    -MJ'llAl.    AM    H     "1      <   I'NNl    i  N  1  IM- 


penseeution  of  the  Christians  still  c<»ntinu(>d  in  some  |>arts  of  the 
empire,  and  il  was  left  hu-  Constantine  to  se<iire  h)r  them  com- 
plete toleration,  and  by  adopting-  its  creed  himself  to  make  Chris- 
tianity in  a  way  the  reliuion  of  the  state.  Tradition  attributes 
his  friendly  attitude  not  to  considerations  of  slate  but  to  a  visi(ni 
which  he  saw.  Kusebius  his  bi(.«rrapher  tells  us  that  on  the  (hiy 
before  the <!;reat  battle  which  he  h»u,:.,dil  with  his  rival  Ma.xentius, 


234 


ROMAN    lllSKJltY 


at  the  ]\Iulvian  lni(lp'  luar  Komc,  In-  Inlicld  in  the  heavens 
the  fi<^iire  of  tlit;  cin^^,  u  ilh  the  le^'end,  I h>r  rinci\  "liy  flii.s  (si^ii) 
eon([iier."  In  the  ni^ht  which  followed,  ( 'hrisl  appeared  lo 
him,  showed  him  tlie  same  si^ii,  and  direeted  him  to  have  it 
disj>laye<lon  a  l)anner. 

473.  The  Labarum.  Wiuthrr  tlie  slorv  of  the  symbol  and 
the  vision  is  trne  or  nt)t,  such  a  slaiidard,  know  n  as  tlic  /(ihftninf, 
was  carried  hv  the  trooix  on  tlic  follow  iim'  da\'  in  the  hatlle  w  liicli 
iruve  Conslantine  the  mastcrv  of  Itah',  and  was  adopted  hv  him 
and  his  su'-ccssoi/s  as  the  impei'ial  device.  It  is  conccivahlc, 
therefore,  that  the  sn( cess  of  liis  troops  nnder  the  emhleni  of 
the  cn).>s  may  liave  led  him  to  [a\'or  ( 'lni>tianity.  'Hie  standard, 
which  is  sh(»wn  upon  liis  eoin^.  consisted  of  a  sj)ear  snj)j»ortin>i.' 
a  Iransver.^e  rod,  from  which  hun;^^  a  jinrplc  emhroideied  hamicr. 
T\u:  spear  was  siu'mounted  hv  a  golden  erown  encircling  the 
nionoj^^'am  of  <1nist's  name  in  dreek  lellers. 

474.  The  Council  at  Ni?aea,  A.  D.  325.  M  lie  ih  aifimdi 
wliieh  the  jj^overnment  liad  taken  toward  (  lii'islianily,  llic;^?(»w  lli 
of  tlie  ni'W  reli;j;ion,  and  the  develo])nie!it  <>!"  .i  compact  ornatii- 
zation  in  the  eliurch  are  alike  show  n  in  the  ;^rc.it  '-onncil  held  at 
Xiciea,  over  whose  hrst  mectinji:  the  emperor  liimself  presided, 
seat'-d  upon  a  ;j^olden  throne.  This  first  council  of  the  woi'ld, 
or  Eeumenica!  Council,  which  was  atieiided  hy  ahout  three 
Imndred  hi^hops  and  hy  a  thousand  or  fifteen  hundred  |)res- 
hyter>  and  others,  had  been  ealle(l  lo«i'ether  to  settle  the  doelrine 
of  the  church  eonccrnin;^;  the  nature  of  ( 'hrist.  Arius,  an  African 
prcsliytcr,  liad  Ihhmi  loni»'  maintaining"  witli  ^reat  learnin;^  and 
eliMiuencc  tiiat  tlie  Son  wa^  ci-eated  \)y  the  I'athei',  and  was 
inferior  to  Ilim.  Tk  ii<f  opponeut  of  :Vrius  was  Alhana- 
sius,  an  E<;yptian,  who  niaintaine(l  the  ahsolute  e(|uality  of  the 
Father  and  the  Son.  The  council  ])\  a  vote,  almost  unanimous, 
rejeeted  the  teachinjifs  of  Arius,  banished  him,  ordered  his  l)ook^ 
pubUely  burned,  and  adopted  the  Xieene  Creed  which  continues 
to  be  used  bv  most  clinrches  to-(hiv. 

475.  Constantine  Makes  Constantinople  a  Christian  City. 
The  chan^^ed  attitude  of  the  ;i;«)vernmenl   in  reli'noii-,  matters 


1  i{o\i  si:i'ri-\m  s  si:vi:Krs   ro  coxstantink 


235 


found  expression  in  tJK^  apjK'arance  of  the  city  of  l>y/antiuni, 
which  Constantine  chose  as  his  roideiice.  Among  tiie  many 
public  l)uildin«2;s  which  he  constructed,  there  was  not  a  single 
pa;.ian  temple,  for,  instead  of  the  temph's  and  altars  which  were 
the  «'iorv  of  Koine,  IJv/antinm  or  ( 'oii^taiilinople,  as  the  city 
was  rechristened  l)y  ( ^)nstantine,  had  its  cliurciu\s  and  its 
crucifixes.  The  location  of  the  new  caj)ital  was  admirably 
clioseii.  It  was  the  central  point  of  the  easlern  half  of  the 
empiic,  on  the  border-line  between  Europe  and  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  meeting-plac<'  oT  all  lh<'  ^-real   highways   from    Hie  East 


Wall  ol  III!'  <;r.  ik   liKVii  ><{    r.y/uiitnuii 

I  ]  I  ,  I  I  I  I  1  «'..<.ot-.'.i  it.i  '-:    Wall    A    1>.    ;  .'• 

Wall  <>{     1  h.iKli.siiJs    A.U.  -lUo-^'.n 


and  the  West.  The  town,  which  was  Iriangnlar  in  shaj)e, 
was  bounded  on  two  sick's  by  water  and  on  tlie  third  side 
bv  land.  It  was,  therefore,  ea^v  lo  defend,  and  well  adaj)ted 
for  trafhc  bv  sea,  for  it  had  an  excellent  harbor;  the  Straits  of 
Bosphoriis  (jpened  northward  into  the  Enxine  and  sontliward 
shi|)s  could  pass  through  the  Proj)ontis  and  the  IIelles])ont  into 
the  .Vegeaii  and  llie  MiMliterranean. 
476.   The   Outlook   for   Rome.     The  transfer  of  the  em- 


236 


UO.MA.N'    IIISTURV 


penjr's  residence  to  Constaiitino[>le  was  a  sad  blow  to  the 
prestige  of  Rome,  and  at  the  time  one  i.iight  ha\e  pRihcU'd 
her  speedy  de(  Hne.  But  the  development  of  the  Clmreh,  and 
tlie  ujrowin^  lutliority  of  tlie  bishop  of  Kome,  or  the  i)oi)(',  ^ave 
her  a  new  lease  of  life,  and  made  her  ai^ain  tlie  ea[)ital — this  time 
the  relij^ions  caoilal  —of  the  civilized  world. 

477.  Summary  of  Events  from  Septimius  Severus  to 
Constantine,  A.  D.  193-337.  In  readinir  the  history  of  this 
period  it  is  dear  that  the  rei^n  oi"  Scj)timiu>  Severus,  who  was 
distinj^nished  I'or  his  military  and  l(".^al  reforms,  was  preceded 
by  a  period  of  civil  war,  a:id  w.n  folloWi'd  by  a  century  of  anarchy 
durinir  which  indc|);Mi(lent  ^n)vcrnmc:iJ^  spran'j;  up  in  Palmyra 
and  Gaul,  until  Aurclian  restorcil  unify  to  the  lMn|)ire  toward 
the  v\u\  of  the  third  ccufury.  Th-  t!i(M)ry  of  thcdyarchy — that 
the  emperor  and  senate  ruled  conjointly  -cstablishe:!  by  Auinis- 
tus,  was  frankly  *ijiven  u[)  l)y  Diocletian,  who  made  himself 
and  his  eollean;ue  ^raxlmian  autocratic  rulers,  on(>  of  them 
estabhshin^^  his  capital  in  the  Kast,  tlie  other  in  the  We4. 
Their  successors  (juarreled,  but  (onstaiitine  united  tlie  Empire 
a^^ain  under  his  control.  lie  reco<!:ni/ed  Christianity  as  a  state 
relio-ion,  had  its  creed  fonnulatcd  at  Xica'a,  and  transferred  his 
residence  to  IJvzantium. 


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CHAPTER  XIV 

the  baku  all  ian  invasions  and  the  western  would 

ix  the  fifth  (  entuuy 
(a.  d.  337-500) 

Hew  til'-  OiTTiiari  peoples  fiitcrtM]  tlie  F.nipire  and  divided  it  amrinpf  them- 
selves  Hu\v( 'hrisi  iaiiit y  linally  iriumplied  over  ]);i;^Mni.sni  How  inoiiasteries 
Were  established,  aud  how  tlie  IJishop  of  Rome  became  the  head  of  the  church 
iu  the  West. 

478.  Constantine's  Immediate  Successors.  Constanline 
at  liis  (Icatli  in  337  divided  the  cnipire  hetwccii  his  ilinv  sons  and 
two  nrplicws.  TlifV  j)roinj)lly  (jujirrclcd  with  one  another,  and 
the  empire  was  rent  l)_v  eivil  fends  nntil  3")0  when  Constantine, 
the  seeon<l  son,  sneeeeded  in  making  himself  master  of  the  whole 
Roman  world. 

479.  Julian  Tries  to  Revive  the  Old  Religion.  At  his 
death  the  niMiiy  chose  his  ne|)hew  Jnlian  as  his  sneeessor.  Julian 
the  Apostate,  as  he  is  commonly  called,  had  l)een  brought  up  as 
a  Christian,  l)!it  his  study  of  Creek  |)hilosophy  led  him  to  i)rel'er 
the  old  Roman  religion  as  a  system,  while  the  harsli  treatment 
which  he  had  received  as  a  young  man  from  his  Christian  rela- 
tives developed  in  him  a  personal  dislike  for  Christianity.  Con- 
se([uently,  when  he  ascended  the  throne  in  3G1,  he  proclaimed 
himself  a  pagan,  and  used  every  peaceful  means  in  his  power  to 
l)ring  the  people  l)ack  to  the  old  faith.  He  confiscated  the 
revenues  of  the  churches,  restricted  the  right  of  the  Christians  to 
teacli,  and  rebuilt  numy  of  the  temples.  But  his  etTorts  were  of 
little  avail,  and  under  his  successors  Christianity  resumed  its 
j)lace  as  the  dominant  religion  of  the  emi)ire. 

480.  Rome  and  the  Barbarians  to  the  North.  Julian  died 
while  on  a  campaign  airainst  the  Persians,  and  if  the  Romans  of 
lil^  «iay  had  been  asked  w  here  the  danger  to  the  emj)ire  lay,  they 
would  have  located  it  in  that  (piarter.     But  before  the  close  of 

237 


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(  IIAITKK  XIV 

TiiL  i',\i;i:\Ki AN  i\\  \si()\>  \M>  riii;  w  i:sti:k\   woki.d 

IN    tin:    I -11' II I    CKNTlIiV 

{\.  I). ;;;;:  r.oiij 

llow  tip-  (ifcmiiii  iM'0|il(S  riit'TfMl  itic  i:iiiiiiri'  ;i  ml  «li  vulnl  it  :i  inniiu:  th<-in- 
sclv--N  I  low  ( 'lirisi  i:tnit>  liiKilly  iriiimiiij-'ii  <»v»r  i .  i .:  lUi^iii  1 1<»\\'  iin  .ii:ist<-i-if>, 
\  .!;i  hllslHil,  Hiulliow  the    IJisliopof    Uolil' ■  beca  liir  the  In  ii' I  of   Ihr  church 

\\i  tilr   VN'cst. 

478.  Constantine's  Immediate  Successors.  ConstantiiK' 
at  \\\>  (K-alli  ill  ''\''U  <livi(l('(l  llic  ciiipiiT  Ix'twccii  his  tlir<c  sons  ami 
two  fii'plicw.N.  'I'hry  proiiijMly  (Hiarrch'd  with  one  aiiollivr,  and 
tlic  cinpirc  was  rciil  l»y  civil  feuds  unlil  •').")()  when  ( 'onslanlinc, 
llic  MTdiid  son,  succi'cdrd  in  making  hiinsi'ir  niasler  ol"  ihc  uliolc 

H(  Mll.lll    \\  (M"ld. 

479.  Julian  Tries  to  Revive  the  Old  Religion.  At  liis 
dcatli  llic  ann\  clio^c  his  nephew  Jnhan  as  his  sncce:^>o!'.  Jnhan 
the  A|»o>l;ite,  a^  h;-  i^  coininonly  ("died,  li;id  heen  hron;^lit  ii|»  as 
a  ('hri.>tian,  hiit  his  study  of"  (ireek  j)hiloso|>liy  led  him  lo  prehr 
the  old  Koman  reli;^ion  as  a  system,  while  the  hai-sli  treatmeni 
which  he  had  i-eeei\('d  a>  a  youn<;-  man  rrom  his  Christian  rela- 
tives de\c'lo|>ed  in  him  a  j)ei'sonal  (hslike  for  (lu'istianily.  Con- 
secjiiently,  when  he  ascended  the  throne  in  olil,  he  |)roelaime(l 
himself  a  |>a.!i:an,  and  used  every  peaceful  means  in  liis  power  to 
hrinu'  the  pei.ple  l)a<-k  to  the  old  faith.  He  confiscated  the 
re\(Miues  of  the  cluH-ches,  ivstricted  the  riu'lit  of  the  Christians  to 
teacii,  and  rehuill  m;tny  of  the  templo.  l>ut  his  I'lhiiis  were  of 
little  avail,  and  under  his  succes.oi-s  Christianity  resumed  its 
plac<'  a>  the  (lomii:;'nt  religion  of  the  cmpii'c. 

480.  Rome  and  the  Barbarians  to  the  North.  JuUan  (hed 
w  hile  on  ;i  canipjii"n  ;iira!!i>t  the  Persians,  and  if  tlie  iJomans  of 
iri>  d;i\  had  l)e«'n  a>Ive<}  w  here  the  danger  lo  the  em|>ire  lay,  they 
would  lia\e  located  ii  in  that  (|Uarl(.-r.      Ihit  hefore  the  close   of 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


•the  centiirv  tr(»ii!)lc  ot  a  iiiiicli  iiion  m  rioii^  iiatinv  than  tlic 
Persian  wai:-  hrokc  (»ut  on  the  northciii  I'ronticr.  'V\\r  I{(Miians 
had  l(jn<4  (hxaJi-d  the  bacliaiian^  lo  the  north,  llic  invasion  ot" 
Italy  by  the  (iaiils  in  tht'  fonrth  cciituiy  B.  c,  the  (Icsccr.t  ot" 
the  Ciiubri  and  'reiitonc>  into  the  pcniiisuhi  toward  the  elose  of 
the  second  century  fu'lore  our  era,  and  the  wars  wliich  Marcus 
Aurelius  liad  wa^icd  airainsl  the  Mareonianni  and  ^^uaih  at  siieli 
fearful  cost  had  tau;i;ht  the  lioinaiis  that  the  northerti  fronti.T 
must  l)e  defended  at  all  liazards. 

481.  The  Northern  Line  of  Defense.    With  this  j)urj)ose  in 

mind,  Domitian  and  Hadrian,  as  we  leive  already  noticed,  had 
constructed  a  line  of  defense,  which,  followin^^  in  part  tlx'  conrx- 
of  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  extended  from  the  mouth  of  the 
one  river  t(»  that  ol  the  other.  To  the  west  and  south  of  this 
frontier  lived  the  Romans  and  the  provincials  who  had  aire[)tcd 
Roman  civilizatior?.     Just  beyond  it  were  the  (ierniaiis. 

482.  Our  Information  Concerning  the  Germans.  Julius 
Car  '  'amjjai.Lnis  in  the  North  brouj^hl  him  inl(t  conflict  with 
tlie  (ierniaris,  and  in  his  CotnincnUiri';:;  he  has  •i;i\'en  us  some 
infornuition  about  tliem.  This  is  supplemcnicd  by  the  aeeounis 
which  the  hi>lorian>  \ flleius  l*aterculus  and  'I'acitus  of  the  fiist 
century  a.  d.  haxc  left  u>,  notably  b\'  Tacitus's  iiUereslin;,'; 
sketch  of  the  country  and  the  jJeo[)le;  and  finally  writers  of  history 
of  the  fourtli  centurv  have  told  us  the  story  of  the  relations  of 
the  (ierma:  tli  the  Romans  in  later  days.  These  di  lie  rent 
sources  of  information  furnish  us  with  a  fair  knowled<i;e  of  the 
peo|)le,  of  the  ( han<i:es  which  they  were  under«]^(>in^,^  and  of  their 
dealings  with  the  Romans. 

483.  Their  Appearance  and  Character.  Tliey  were  a 
peojJe  of  (Treat  stature,  \^ith  (ieice  blue  eyes  and  l)londe  hair. 
Their  life  in  the  opcii  trained  them  to  endure  cold,  Inm^'-cr,  and 
fatigue.  They  were  addicted  to  gambling  and  inunuderatc 
drinking,  but  tliey  retained  their  courage  and  manly  vigor  in  a 
much  higher  degree  than  did  the  more  civilized  peoples  south  of 
the  frontier  line. 

484.  Their  Occupations  and  Life.    They  lived  in  villager, 


TUE  BARB  A  UI  AX   INVASIONS 


239 


cultivating  the  land,  and  tending  their  flocks  and  herds.  There 
were  few  roads  i(»  connect  these  liltje  conununities  with  one 
another,  so  that  commerce  was  almost  unknown,  and  the  small 
anu)unt  of  trade  wliich  flourished  was  carried  on  by  means  of 
barter.  Jhit  their  delight  was  in  hunting  and  war.  They 
fought  without  much  regard  to  discipline  or  military  formation, 
but  with  a  dash  and  a  vigor  which  made  it  difhcult  to  resist  their 
iittacks,  for,  as  Tacitus  tells  us,  "it  was  shameful  for  the  prince 
to  be  outdone  in  courai-e,  shameful  for  his  followers  to  be  unequal 
in  courage  to  their  prince." 

485.  German  Confederations.  As  time  went  on,  their 
common  interests  and  common  mode  of  living  led  the  petty 
tribt\s  within  a  given  district  to  (Miter  into  alliance  with  one 
another.  In  the  fourth  century  of  our  era  the  most  important 
of  tile  confederations  thus  formed  were  those  of  the  Franks  near 
the  mouth  of  tlu'  Rhine,  of  the  .Vlemaniii  to  the  south  of  them, 
of  the  Visigoths,  or  \Vesl-(h)ths,  north  of  the  Danube  and  near 
its  mouth,  and,  still  farther  east,  of  the  Ostrogoths,  or  East- 
(loths. 

486.  The  Germans  Become  more  Civilized.  In  the  tlirec 
centuries  which  hud  clapstMl  letwtrn  the  time  ot  Tacitus,  fiom 
whose  descri|)lion  of  th','  (Ien»i;ins  we  have  (pioted  above,  and 
the  jxrioii  which  we  ;ire  <!iseussing,  tlu^  cliaracter  of  some  of  the 
(Jerman  tribes  and  tlu'ir  relations  with  Rome  liad  undergone 
serious  changes.  Those  who  had  been  brought  into  contact 
with  the  Romans  had  adoj)ted  a  more  settled  and  civilized  mode 
of  life.  ( 'hristianity  even  had  made  C(;nsideral)le  progress  among 
them,  since  a  converted  Visigoth  of  the  fourth  century,  named 
Ulfilas,  had  invent(Ml  an  alphabet  for  tlu'in,  translated  the  Bible 
into  tlie  (iothic  tongue,  and  induced  some  of  them  to  accept 
Christianity. 

487.  Their  Gradual  Migration  into  the  Empire.  Some 
of  the  (Jermans  had  alreadv  crossed  the  frontier  i)eacefullv,  and 
of  their  own  acconl,  ;nid  s(^ttled  on  Uonian  soil.  Otherp  had 
been  brouglit  in  by  force  to  oceui)y  land  laid  wasti^  in  war.  Still 
Others  had  forced  their  way  into  Roman    territory,  and   made 


240 


ROMAN*    IIISTiJiiV 


THE    BARBAKIAN    INVASIONS 


241 


themselves  masters  of  it.  Tlic  last-mentioned  process  had 
taken  i>laee  in  tlie  province  of  Dacia,  which  was  now  controlled 
hy  the  Visigotliic  king.  The  ( Teriiians  were  received  reachly  as 
soldiers,  and  some  of  them  were  advanced  to  important  positions 
in  the  Roman  army.  Two  circumstances  had  contributed 
largely  to  bring  about  this  slow  and  essentially  peaceful  invji- 
sion  of  the  empire:  the  incnMsc  of  po|)ulation  in  the  North,  wlik-h 
made  migration  necessary,  and  the  attraction  which  the  fertile 
lands  and  the  greater  wealth  of  the  South  held  out. 

488.  The  Huns  Appear  in  Europe.  But  at  the  moment 
which  we  liavc  now  reached  in  our  story  a  new  factor  of  jin 
entirely  different  sort  gasc  a  sudden  impetus  to  llie  southward 
movement.  A  peoi)le  hitherto  unknown  in  history,  called  the 
Huns,  of  an  Asiatic  race,  entered  Europe  just  north  of  thc^ 
Caspian  Sea,  and  dcsci-ndcd  npon  the  Ostrogoths.  "Tiicv  w<  re 
men  of  great  size,"  as  Aiiimianus  Marcellinus,  a  historian  of  the 
fourth  centurv,  tells  us.  "and  had  such  short  leffs  that  von  mi"ht 
fancy  them  two-legged  beasts,  or  the  stout  figures  which  are 
hewn  out  in  a  rude  manner  with  an  ax,  and  stand  on  the  posts 
at  the  ends  of  bridges.  .  .  .  They  had  no  settled  abode,  but 
were  homeless  and  lawless,  perpetually  wandering  wilh  their 
wagons,  which  tliey  made  their  liomes;  in  fact,  they  seemed 
to  be  a  people  always  in  flight." 

489.  The  Visigoths  Flee  across  the  Danube,  lliese 
people  overran  tlie  country  of  the  Ostrogotlis,  and  descended 
upon  the  Visigoths  like  a  wliirlwind.  The  Visigoths  lied  before 
them,  and,  coming  to  the  banks  of  the  Damibe,  begged  Valens, 
the  emperor  at  Constantinople,  to  permit  them  t(^  cross  the  river 
into  Roman  territory.  Their  recpust  was  granted,  ;ind,  as 
Ammianus  says,  "so  soon  as  they  liad  obtained  permission  of  the 
emperor  to  cross  tlie  Danube  and  to  cultivate  sonu'  districts  in 
Thrace,  they  poured  across  tlie  stream  day  and  night,  without 
ceasing,  embarking  in  throngs  on  board  ships  and  rafts  and  on 
canoes  made  of  tlie  hollow  trunks  of  trees." 

490.  The  Battle  of  Adrianople  in  A.  D.  378.  The  sett  le- 
nient of  such  a  ho.st  of  barbarians  in  one  body  within  the  limits 


I 


of  the  empire  was  a  dangerous  experiment  in  itself.  The  danger 
was  aggravated  by  the  ill-treatment  which  these  immigrants 
suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  officials  of  the  province  of 
Moesia,  and  finally  the  new-comers  broke  out  into  revolt  against 
Roman  authority.  Valens  marched  against  them  with  a  large 
force,  and  the  two  armies  met  at  Adrianople.  The  barbarians 
defeated  their  opponents  and  slew-  the  emperor.  The  battle  of 
Adrianople  is,  therefore,  a  turning-point  in  history,  because  a 
barbarian  force  has  defeated  a  Roman  army  in  a  pitched  battle 
on  Roman  soil. 

491.  The  Visigoths  Hold  Roman  Territory.  Theodosius, 
the  successor  of  Valens,  came  to  an  understanding  with  the  Visi- 
goths, however,  and  allowed  them  to  settle  in  the  provinces  to 
the  south  of  the  Danube,  under  their  owm  rulers,  and  as  allies  of 
the  Romans.  He  even  enrolled  forty  thousand  of  them  as 
soldiers,  and  to  some  of  the  German  leaders  he  gave  com- 
mands in  his  army. 

492.  Stilicho  Holds  Them  in  Check.  One  of  them, 
Stilicho,  a  Vandal  by  birth,  was  made  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army,  and  to  him  the  emperor  on  his  deathbed  entrusted  the 
guardianship  of  his  two  boys,  Ilonorius  and  Arcadius.  Ilonorius 
took  the  \Ve;t,  and  Arcadius  the  East,  and  thereafter  the  tw^o 
parts  of  the  empire  were  never  reunited  in  any  true  sense  of  the 
word.  The  Visigoths,  taking  advantage  of  the  fact  that  the 
throne  in  the  West  was  occupied  b}'  an  incai)al)le  young  man, 
not  yc\  twenty  years  of  age,  left  their  newly-acfjuired  territory 
and  marched  southward  into  Greece,  under  their  brilliant  young 
leader  Alaric.  The  Greeks  implored  help  from  Italy;  Stilicho 
came  to  their  assistance,  and  the  strange  spectacle  presents  itself 
of  the  empire  attacked  by  one  barbarian  and  defended  by 
another.  The  Goths,  checked  by  the  move  of  Stilicho,  withdrew 
on  condition  that  Alaric  should  be  made  governor  of  Illyricum. 
Alaric\s  next  move  was  against  Italy,  but  again  Stilicho  forced 
him  back.  Stilicho's  enemies,  however,  had  poisoned  the  mind 
of  Ilonorius;  the  great  Vandal  was  charged  with  being  a  traitor, 
and  put  to  death. 


242 


ROM  AX    HISTORV 


THE    HARBARIAX   INVASIONS 


243 


493    Alaric  Takes  Rome  in  A.  D.  410.    T\\v   onv   bar 

which  li:nl  stcunl  hctwccn  Alaric  and  Home  was  removed,  and 
the  (iolhic  kiii^  ua>  iiol  ^l(»\v  to  lake  advaiita<i;e  of  the  oppor- 
tunity. Sweepinjj;  down  from  lllyricum  at  the  head  of  liis  forces, 
lie  apiH'ared  hciore  K«»nie,  and  deman(h'd  its  surrender.  The 
city  could  not  witlistand  the  assauh  nuuh'  upon  it;  a  l)reach  was 
made  in  the^n-eat  wall  that  Aurelian  had  built  about  it  a  century 
and  a  liaif  before,  and  the  (ioths  entered,  'iliey  treated  the 
city,  however,  witli  wonderful  forbearance.  ContiMitini]:  tliem- 
selves  with  the  spoils  which  they  could  carry  with  them,  they 
departed,  jeavinii-  the  temples  and  public  buildin<:;s  practically 
untoucluMl.  While  conlinuin^^  his  raid  in  southern  Italy,  Alaric 
was  seized  with  fever  and  died,  and  his  brother-in-law  Alaulf, 
who  succeeded  him.  withdn'W  from  the  j)eninsula. 

494.  The  Visigoths  Occupy  Spain  and  Gaul  in  A.  D.  415. 
As  Alaric  on  a  former  (M(asi(»n  liad  retired  from  (Jreeceon  condi- 
tion of  bein<:  recou;nized  by  the  Uoman  state  as  (governor  of 
lllvricum,  so  as  the  pri<c  of  his  withdrawal  from  Italy  Ataulf 
exax'ted  the  appointnu'ut  as  commander  of  the  forces  inti'uded 
for  the  eampai^rn  in  Spain.  Spain  ha«l  been  overrun  five  years 
before  by  the  Siicvi  and  I  he  \'andals  from  the  valley  of  the  upper 
Danube,  and  it  was  Alaulf's  mission  In  n'cover  ihe  province  for 
Rome.  'Hiis  task  he  an<i  his  successor  .m  coinplishcd,  but  Instead 
of  turninj:  over  the  recovend  hrritorv  to  the  emperor  Ilonorius, 
the  Visiuoihs  cslal»lished  there  a  kin;j;dom  of  their  own,  com- 
prising' the  ;i:reater  jKirt  of  Spain,  and  (Jaul  as  far  north  as  the 
river  Loire.     Their  capital  was  Toulouse. 

495.  The  Vandals  Invade  Africa  in  A.  D.  429.  Havino: 
seen  the  \'iNi^^nllis  seltletl  at  last  after  forty  years  of  wanderinti;  in 
scan  h  of  suitable  homes,  let  us  turn  to  the  Vandals  who  had  been 
displaced  by  ihem.  lieiiifX  driven  southward  by  the  advancing? 
V^isi}X<»ths,  they  naturally  crossed  over  into  Africa.  To  this 
enterprise,  in  fact,  tlieir  kinir  ^Jaiseric  was  invited  by  Boniface, 
the  Koman  j^overnor  of  Afiica,  who  was  otVended  at  the  treat- 
ment which  he  had  received  at  the  hands  of  the  Roman  court. 


Boniface  (juickly  rejiented  his  invitation,  and  op|)osed  the 
invaders,  but  without  success. 

496.  St.  Augustine  and  the  African  Church.  The  most 
viir()rous  resistance  which  the  Vandals  encountered  in  Africa 
was  offered  l)y  the  fortress  of  Hippo,  where  tlie  celebrated 
theologian  St.  Augustine  was  bishop.  He  died  during  its  siege, 
which  lasted  for  fourteen  months  or  more.  Not  the  least  of  the 
misfortunes,  to  his  way  of  thinking,  which  the  invasion  of  the 
barbarians  l)rought  in  its  train  was  the  fact  that  the  Vandals, 
though  Christians,  had  accepted  the  heretical  teachings  of  Arius, 
which  St.  Augustine  had  been  vigorously  opposing  for  many 
years.  The  aiixictv  which  he  felt  for  the  future  of  the  church 
in  Africa  was  well  founded,  for  it  never  regained  its  previous 
strengtij  and  importance.  The  recovery  of  Africa  by  the 
Eastern  Empire  in  oiit  resuscitated  it  for  a  short  time,  but  in  the 
middle  of  the  seventh  century  Christianity  and  the  renniants  of 
Uoman  civilization  in  Africa  fell,  never  to  be  restored,  before  the 
sword  of  Islam. 

497.  The  Vandals  Sack  Rome  in  A.  D.  455.    With  the 

ca|)ture  of  Carthage  the  Vaiuhds  com])leted  their  concpicst  of 
northern  Africa.  The  city  had  regained  the  old  splendor  and 
power  which  she  had  enjoyed  before  her  destruction  by  Home, 
and  under  the  Vandals  she  prosj)ere(l  and  became  the  commer- 
cial and  piratical  capital  of  the  Mediterranean.  It  fell  to  the 
k>t  of  Vandal  Carthage,  in  fact,  to  take  vengeance  on  Home  for 
the  wrongs  which  Punic  Carthage  had  sulfered  cc!ituries  before 
at  the  hands  of  her  Italian  rival;  for  Gaiseric,  her  great  ruler, 
crossed  to  Italy  and  ca|)tured  the  city,  but  like  Alaric,  he  s|)ared 
the  l)uildings,  although  he  carried  olf  great  quantities  of  spoils 
and  lumdreds  of  captives. 

498.  The  Burgundians  in  Southeastern  Gaul.  AVhile 
these  events  were  liappcr.ing  in  Africa,  the  Burgundians,  another 
tribe  of  (lernums,  from  the  shores  of  tlie  Baltic,  passed  over  into 
Ciaul  and  occupied  the  valleys  of  the  Saone  and  the  lower  llhonc. 
Short-lived  as  their  kingdom  was — it  lasted  l)Ut  a  century — they 
have  left  us  in  the  Burguudiau  laws  and  in  the  Nibelimgenlicd 


244 


ROMAN'    lUsroKY 


» 


THE    BAKBAIUAK    I>JVASI()XS 


245 


two  of   tlie  most  inlcrcstliiii,-  litrnirv  moiuuuents  of  this  period. 

499.  The   Burgundian   Laws   and    the   Nibelungenlied. 

The  Biir<i!;undiun  hnvs,  wliich  were  eo(hfie(l  by  kiiii^  (Iinidohald, 
are  iiiterestinjr  hccnnsc  tlicx  show  verv  elearly  the  treatment 
which  the  Homaii.-,  leeeivcd  at  the  liand^  of  the  German  settlers 
or  invaders.  The  X ihvhntrjinlhd,  or  Sotirj  of  fhr  XiUdungs, 
is  the  finest  pieee  of  eail\'  (ierman  hlerature.  'Hie  slorv  comes 
from  the  north,  l»ut  took  dcHnite  form  in  Hurf.!;nndy,  and  was 
handed  down  by  word  of  month  until  the  thirteenth  century, 
wlien  it  was  connnitted  to  u  ritini!;. 

500.  The  Huns  Grow  in  Importance.  For  fifty  or  sev- 
entv-five  Mais  after  thev  liad  driven  the  Visij^otlis  across 
the  Danube  the  I  Inns  phiyed  a  small  [)art  in  European  affairs. 
In  fact,  the  emperor  in  the  East  had  purchased  peace  hyce<linu' 
to  them  a  part  of  l*annoma  and  by  payini^  tliem  larji^c  ^ums  as 
tribute.  I'heir  territory  had  ii,i*eatly  increased,  and  in  the  Hfth 
cenlurv,  their  kiivj:  Allila  ruK'd  over  all  the  wild  tribes  from  the 
Den  to  the  Daimbe,  an<l  waited  for  a  plausible  [)retext  to  invade 
file  fair  fields  of  the  empire. 

501.  Attila  Invades  Gaul.  Such  an  opportunity  ofh'red 
itself  in  lol.  Wc  need  vuA  stop  to  consider  the  reasons  which 
Attila  jxave  for  his  advance  [o  the  south.  I  lis  real  purpose  was 
to  plunder  the  country,  (i.iul  was  llie  object  of  his  attack,  and 
he  advance<l  into  tlie  centre  of  tii;it  ])rovince,  layini^  the  country 
waste  with  fire  and  sword.  .Ml  southwestern  Europe  would 
probably  have  sutl'ere(l  tlH>  same  fate  had  it  not  been  for  the 
vi<^orous  ju'tion  of  Ai-tius,  tlie  jx<'vernor  of  central  (raul,  and  the 
loyal  support  of  Hieodoric,  the  king  of  the  Visi<roth.s. 

502  Attila  is  Defeated  at  Chalons  inA.  D.  451.  They 
checked  Attila's  advjinec  on  the  field  of  C'lirdons  in  451,  where 
it  is  said  that  from  one  hundred  thou.stmd  to  tliree  liundred 
tliousantl  of  his  warriors  fell,  and  thus  they  turned  back  the  ti(h' 
of  barbarian  invasion.  Manv  writers  have  held  that  bv  winninj.^ 
tliis  victory  Aetius  saved  (Jaul  and  Spain  for  the  cnuse  of  civili- 
zation, and  tliat,  had  .Vttila  defeated  the  Romans  and  (ioths,  the 
new  ( rcrman  state  would  liave  been  smotliered  in  its  infancv. 


It  would  seem  more  probable  that  the  restless  Huns,  after  sweep- 
in*,^  through  (raul  and  Spain,  would  have  departed  and  returned 
to  their  own  part  of  the  world  with  their  |)lunder,  and  that  the 
developinj.^  (ierman  civilization  would  have  recovered  from  the 
shock. 

503.  Romans  and  Germans  Recognize  their  Common 
Interests.  However  that  may  be,  the  Romans  and  Germans 
saw  clearlv  that  tViev  liad  common  interests,  and  that  their  cause 
was  the  cause  of  civilization  a<^ainst  l)arbiirism,  and  the  battle 
of  Chalons,  in  which  they  fou^dit  side  by  side,  was  typical  of  the 
welding  together  of  the  two  j)eoples  into  one. 

504.  Attila  Threatens  Rome.  Turning  back  from  his 
campaign  in  Gaul,  Attila  entered  Italy  with  the  intention  of 
marching  ujion  Rome.  Fortunately,  before  he  had  carried  out 
his  threatened  ])urpose,  hv  was  induced  to  withdraw,  partly 
through  tlie  re])resentations  of  an  embassy,  led  by  Pope  Leo  the 
(Jrcat,  which  went  to  his  camp  in  nt^rthern  Italy.  Attila  himself 
die<i  in  the  following  year,  and  with  his  death  the  Huns  pass  out 
of  Europcjin  history. 

505.  Ricimer  Makes  and  Unmakes  Emperors.  Although 
Italy  was  saved  from  the  ravages  of  Attila  and  his  Huns,  she  had 
fallen  on  sorry  times.  The  army  was  again  master  of  the  situa- 
tion, as  it  had  been  two  and  three  t'cnturies  before,  and  for  sixteen 
y(>ars  its  leader,  tlie  Sucvian  general  Ricimer,  made  and  unmade 
rulers,  as  he  pleased.  To  his  |)osition  ()rest«'s,  a  former  secre- 
tary of  Attila,  succeeded,  and  raised  his  own  son,  a  child  of 
six,  to  the  throui^  with  the  title  of  Romulus  Augustulus. 

506.  Romulus  Augustulus,  the  Last  Emperor  in  the 
West.  It  was  a  strange  whim  of  fate  that  ''the  little  Augustus," 
who  by  chance  had  derived  from  his  grandfatlier  the  name 
whicli  the  first  king  of  Rome  had  l)orne,  should  have  been  the 
last  em|)eror  in  the  West,  but  so  it  proved.  The  soldiers,  disap- 
pointcil  at  not  receiving  from  Orestes  the  expected  grants  of 
land,  overthrew-  liim,  and  made  ()<loaccr,  or  Odovakar,  one  of 
their  number,  their  Icadc^r.  Romulus  Augustulus  was  forced 
to  abdicate  in  A.  i).  47(»,  and   an  eml)as.sy  was  sent  to  Con- 


240 


HOMW    lUSTOKV 


THE    BARBARIAN    INVASIONS 


247 


staiitinoplc  in  aiiMounc<'  to  the  ('inprror  in  .he  East  that  the 
people  of  Italv  ace«  i>te<l  hiiii  as  the  sole  ruler  of  the  empire. 
Tlie  eiul);i-;s\'  fiirtlirr  sin  ted  that  it  had  ])erfeet  eoiifideiiee  in 
the  virtues  and  ahilil)  (»l'  Odoneer,  and  it  l>e^;i;-ed  tlie  emperor 
to  ^^ive  him  *'the  title  of  j)alrieiaii  and  the  ^^overninent  of  the 
diocese  of  Italv."  With  this  event  the  empire  in  the  West 
came  to  an  end. 

507.  Continuity  of  the  Roman  Empire.  Tt  is  clear  that 
"ihe  fail,"  so-called,  'S)f  the  empire  in  tlie  Wcsl"  did  not  involve 
llie  disajipearance  of  the  lioman  eippire.  The  continuity  of  its 
historv  was  mihrol^cn.  I'he  successors  of  Au<^ustus  and  Con- 
slantine  still  sat  upon  the  tliroue.  They  had  only  transferred 
their  capital  from  Itoine  fn  rnnstantino|)lc,  and  at  Constanti- 
nople tln'V  contimied  lo  rci;;a  luitil  this  eity  fell  before  the  as- 
saults of  the  Turks  in  1  1.13. 

508.  What  Really  Happened  in  A.  D.  476.  One  other 
point  is  clear  in  tliis  couikm  tiou.  'I'lie  event  which  happened 
m  17()  was  not  an  une\pc<lcd  and  dramatic  eataslroplie.  It 
was  tnerelv  the  candid  recognition  of  the  existing  state  of  afVairs, 
and  fornud  occupation  «»f  Italy  by  the  (rermans  was  simply  the 
la-t  step  iu  the  j»rocess  of  dissolution  wliieh  had  definitely  begun 
a  centin-y  earlier  at  the  lijittle  of  Adrianople. 

509.  The  Condition  of  the  Western  World.  The  w(  stern 
half  of  the  Koman  world  was  now  under  the  control  of  the  German 
invaders.  The  Daiuiljian  })rovinees  had  long  since  been  given 
over  to  the  <  )strogotlis,  Britain  had  l)ecome  the  prey  of  the  Picts 
and  Scots,  and  soon  fell  into  the  hands  of  two  German  tribes,  die 
Auiilcs  and  tlie  Saxons.  Tlie  Franks  oeeuj)ied  Belgium  and  the 
country  bonleriug  on  tlie  lower  Rhine.  The  Burgundians  had 
establishe<l  themselves  in  the  valleys  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone; 
the  Vi^i<,^(»ths  had  seized  soiitli western  Gaul  and  Si)ain,  and  the 
Suevi  tla'  northwestern  eorner  of  theSi)anish  peninsula.  Across 
the  St  mil  of  Gibraltar  in  northern  Africa  were  the  Vandals. 
Now  finally  Italy  passed  under  the  eontrol  of  Odoaeer. 

510.  The  **Fall"  of  the  Empire  in  the  West:  Internal 
Causes.     We  have  already  observed,  in  following  the  narrative 


I 


of  events,  some  of  the  forces  w  liieh  elfected  the  gradual  dismem- 
berment of  the  empn-e  in  the  Wcsl.  Weakness  within  and 
j)ressure  from  without  combined  to  bring  it  about.  Foremost 
among  the  internal  causes  wc  have  noticed  slavery,  which  reduced 
to  poverty  the  farmer  and  the  Uvv  aitisan,  and  put  a  stigma  ofi 
manual  labor.  Partlv  for  this  reason,  and  partlv  from  other 
eauses,  the  mass  of  the  people,  in  Italy  at  least,  lost  their  moral 
fibre,  and  became  incapable  of  defending  themselves,  or  of 
managing  succcvssfully  their  own  private  and  public  all'airs. 
The  population  deelincd;  trade  and  commerce  had  almost  died 
out;  too  much  was  taken  from  the  people  by  a  vicious  system  of 
taxation  and  by  dishonest  ofHeials,  and  the  emperors  in  the  W\*st 
were  too  ineapable  to  use  even  the  means  at  hand  to  repel  the 
invaders. 

611.  External  Causes.  While  social  and  political  deirenera- 
tion  was  going  on  williin,  the  barbarians  outside  the  empire 
were  growing  stronger  by  combining  into  great  confederations, 
and  were  learning  Koman  methods  of  warfare,  so  that  when 
the  need  o*"  more  land  or  the  pressure  of  the  wild  tribes  behind 
them  pushed  them  southward,  or  when  the  wealtli  of  the  empire 
tem])ted  them  across  the  frontier,  tlaw  were  not  wholly  uni)re.- 
l)ared  to  make  good  their  claims  to  Roman  territory.  Many  of 
lliem,  too,  had  been  allowed  to  settle  in  a  more  or  less  peaei^ful 
fashion  on  Roman  soil,  so  that  a  large  part  of  the  w^estern  world 
eanie  into  their  jmssession  largely  by  w^ay  of  gradual  occupation 
rather  than  by  contpiest. 

512.  Relations  of  the  Germanic  Kingdoms  to  the  Empire. 
We  must  not  think  of  all  the  newlv-establishcd  Germanic  king- 
dorns  as  technically  independent-  Ataulf,  the  Visigoth,  it  will 
be  remembered,  received  from  the  em})eror  a  commission  to  re- 
gain Spain  for  the  empire,  and  he  and  his  successors  recognized 
the  supremacy  of  the  central  government.  In  fact,  the  Visigothic 
and  Frankish  kings  in  Spain  and  (iaul  did  not  throw  olf  tlieir 
allegiance  to  tlie  empire  until  toward  the  close  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury. Odoaeer  in  Italy  claimed  to  hold  his  |)osition  as  the 
re[)resentative  of  the  em})eror  at  Byzantium.     Only  the  Vandal 


248 


KOM.VX    IILSTOUV 


THE    BARBARIAV    INVASIONS 


249 


king  in  Africa  assrrtrd  liinisclf  as  an  iniU'iKMident  sovereign. 
And  yet  in  no  one  of  these  cases  dul  the  supreuiaey  of  the  eiiiperor 
aniouiit  to  mueli.  He  was  too  far  away  and  too  weak  to  assert 
it,  and  the  German  ruler  imposed  taxes,  api)ointed  officials, 
decUired  war,  and  made  peace  without  regard  to  the  occupant 
of  the  throne  at  Byzantium. 

513.  How  These  Relations  Came  About.  This  difference 
between  the  tlieoretical  and  practical  relations  of  the  Germanic 
kingdoms  came  from  the  application  fo  a  large  area  of  practices 
which  had  been  followed  on  a  small  scale  for  nearly  a  century. 
In  theearlv  vears  of  the  sonthwanl  movement,  for  instance,  a 
tribe  would  cross  the  Danube  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor 
and  settle  on  Roman  soil.  The  cliicf  would  style  himself  an 
official  of  the  emph-e,  and  would  govern  in  that  capacity,  but  as 
the  Roman  adiniiiistrativc  system  grew  laxer,  he  would  grad- 
ually govern  without  nuicli  legard  to  tlie  emperor.  If  we  think 
of  this  system  as  prevailing  over  an  extensive  territory  like 
Spain  or  Italy,  wc  have  a  fairly  clear  idea  of  the  relation  of  the 
(lermanie  kingdoms  to  tlie  emi)ire  in  the  latter  part  of  the  fifth 

century. 

514.  How    the    Germans    Treated    the    Romans.    Wv 

should  prol>al)ly  be  wn.ng  in  supjiosing  that  social  conditions 
in  the  western  world  were  suddenly  and  radically  changed  by 
the  barbarian  invasions.  The  various  (Jerman  peoi)les  differed 
greatly  from  one  another,  of  course,  in  character  and  in  civili- 
zation. The  Vandals,  lor  instance,  were  fierce  and  intolerant; 
tlie  Burgundians  mild  and  ready  to  take  up  a  settled  life.  Conse- 
(juently  the  treatment  which  Roman  |>rovincials  experienced  at 
the  hands  of  their  coiKjuerors  was  different  in  different  sections, 
but  on  tlie  whole  their  life  did  not  und<'rgo  such  a  sudden  or 
marked  change  as  one  would  at  first  su|)pose. 

515.  Reasons  for  Their  Tolerant  Attitude.  The  reasons 
are  not  far  to  seek.  Mimy  of  the  German  tribes  had  l)een  for 
some  time  more  or  lc>s  <  losely  associated  with  the  Romans  in 
the  relati(»ns  of  i'veryday  life,  and  in  the  army,  where  German 
auxiliaries  arc  found  from   the  time  of  xVugustus.     The  new- 


comers and  the  natives  had  come  to  know  c;ich  otlier;  they  liatl 
begun  to  assimilate,  and  some  of  the  (rcrman  tribes  had  become 
partly  civilized,  so  that,  after  settled  conditions  had  \)vvn  estab- 
lished, the  two  j)eoi)les  seem  to  have  lived  amicably  together,  and 
the  Romans  were  treated  with  reasonable  fairness.  That  they 
did  ai)i)reciate  their  eonunon  interests,  in  some  cases  at  least,  was 
shown  bv  their  united  action  in  Cranl  against  Attila  and  his 
Huns.  Furthermore  the  sentimental  respect  which  the  Germans 
and  their  leaders  had  ft)r  the  empire  contributed  not  a  little  to 
develop  in  them  a  tolerant  attitude  toward  Roman  institutions 
and  the  Roman  i)eoplc. 

516.  The  Struggle  Between  Christianity  and  Paganism. 
It  was  a  fortunate  thing  for  the  Christian  church  that  it  had  sent 
its  missionaries  into  Germany  and  converted  many  of  the  (Ger- 
mans to  Christianity.  .Vs  a  result  ( liristianity  suffered  no  serious 
check  from  the  invasions.  By  this  time  it  had  nearly  driven  out 
paganism,  although  the  struggle  had  been  a  long  and  hard  one. 
The  state  and  the  old  faith,  with  the  centuries  of  history  be- 
hind tliern,  were  indissolubly  bound  together  in  the  imagination 
of  the  Roman.  The  old  religion  had  struck  its  roots  so  deeply 
into  the  ceremonies,  the  festivals,  and  the  amusements  of  })ublic 
life,  into  literature  and  art,  into  the  family  relations  and  everyday 
life  that  it  could  be  torn  out  only  with  great  diiliculty. 

517.  The  Triumph  of  Christianity.  As  the  Christians 
gradually  became  the  dominant  element  in  society  and  the  state, 
thev  turned  against  the  pagans  the  same  wea[)ons  which  die 
j)agans  had  used  against  them  in  their  earlier  days.  In  392,  for 
instance,  people  were  forbidden  by  law  to  offer  siicrifices  and  to 
visit  the  temples,  but  paganism  was  evidently  not  stamped  out 
at  once,  l)ecause  in  the  next  century  we  find  edicts  issued  against 
those  who  observed  pagan  rites. 

518.  Arianism  and  Orthodoxy.  Although  it  was  fortunate 
for  the  Christians  of  the  Roman  world  that  many  of  the  barba- 
rians had  been  converted  to  Christianity  before  the  invasions 
besran,  it  was  unfortunate  that  thev  had  adopted  Arianism. 
This  circumstance  pr()bal)ly  did  more  than  anything  else  to  keep 


250 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


till'  (riiuls,  Sjuniianls,  ami  Africaiis,  wlio  were  orthodox,  from 
aniai^MiiKitinii:  nailily  w  illi  the  invaders.  Tlu'  Vandal  kings  even 
confisc-ated  thi'  churches  of  the  Catholics  and  in  some  cases 
punished  their  members  with  imprisonment  and  death.  This 
I'lement  of  discord  was  removed,  however,  in  the  sixth  centurv, 
when  Africa  was  regained  hy  the  Eastern  emj)ire,  aud  the  Visi- 
goths became  Catholics. 

519.  The  Development  of  Asceticism.  Two  institutions  of 
the  ehurcli  whicli  exerted  an  immense  influence  on  the  weslern 
world  (hirinjx  the  ATiddle  Ages — monasticism  and  tlie  papacy — 
come  into  prominence  during  this  pi'riod.  Tlie  beginnings  of 
monasticism,  so  far  as  Christianity  is  concerned,  are  to  Ik> 
found  in  the  East.  Some  men  reasoned,  "It  is  the  weakness  of 
the  fl(!sh  and  lln^  pleasures  of  the  world  wlrch  tempt  us  to  sin. 
Tlierefore  we  will  withdraw  from  the  W(»rld,  we  will  mortify 
tlie  Hesh,  and  we  will  give  ourselves  up  to  prayer  and  medita- 
tion." It  wjis  this  Ncntiincnt  \vlii<!i  led  St.  Ajithony  in  the  third 
century  to  retire  to  a  solitary  j>lace  in  Egy|)t,  atul  spend  there 
nearly  eighty  years  of  his  life.  It  was  tliis  feeling  which  led  him 
to  \ve;ir  a  hair  sliirt  an;l  a  sheepskin  girdecl  al)out  liim,  to  sleep 
lijjon  the  barc!  ground,  and  to  fast  for  days  at  a  time.  Tlie  perse- 
cutions which  the  church  sulfered  in  the  third  centurv  lent  an 

ft/ 

impetus  to  tlie  ascetic  movemimt  by  driving  men  tem|)orarily  at 
least  into  the  desert. 

520.  Monasteries  Established.  To  others  who  wislied  to 
renounce  the  vanities  of  tlu-  world,  the  life;  of  the  hermit  did 
not  aj>peal.  Such  [)eople  did  not  think  it  necessary  to  forego 
altogether  the  so(  icty  of  their  fellow-men.  Men  of  this  way  of 
thinking  withdrew  to  some  retired  spot,  and  ass(K*iated  them- 
selves together  in  a  rcliirious  com.nunity,  whose  menil>ers  subjected 
tliemselves  to  a  more  or  less  rigorous  discipline.  These  monastic 
organizations,  like  the  hermits,  first  become  common  in  Egy{)t, 
in  the  fourth  century,  l^'his  metliod  ol  retiring  from  the  world 
was  better  suited  to  the  climate  of  Euro|)eaiid  U)  the  les>  fanatical 
temperament  of  the  [>eoj)le  of  that  j>art  of  the  world. 

521.  The  Life  of  the  Monks.    The  monks  gave  themselves 


i 


THE    BARBARIAN    INVASIONS 


251 


o 

M 

at 

OQ 


O 


H 
H 

< 

o 


up  to  their  religious  duties;  they  tauj^ht  the  barharicUis  Christi- 
anity, and  engao^cd  in  agriculture  and  other  forms  of  manual 
labor.  In  course  of  time  life  in  the  monasteries  came  to  be  reffu- 
lated  in  accordance  with  a  carefully  (hweloped  system. 

522.  The  "Rule"  of  St.  Benedict.  The  form  which  it 
finally  took,  and  which  it  kept  in  the  main  through  the  Middle 
Ages  was  given  to  it  by  St.  Benedict  in  the  early  |)art  of  tlie  sixth 
century.  He  drew  up  a  constitution  to  govern  the  celebrated 
monastery  of  Monte  Cassino,  which  lie  founded,  and  his  "Rule," 
as  it  is  called,  was  adopted  by  almost  all  the  monasteries  in  the 

\5tlCINJ05HOCl\\;KV.lI5irin\IUUi^lXlWA 
rVjIXlMATL5!iUVI5lNllOA.-<U(MlOO\|lf/5.\CO^l 

SriUAf\CI.\VDl.'ClN;5MUlTACLM[UC{CW0AJUl- 
tUA\l>VjA\MASLriilL\MNAIlMCUU\lN\IlCll 
C£ANLMVjS.lDMACUi^AAl5lC0'KI^lMSaWAM- 
SlCKXNnKVL.Wl\SJLAllO\CeUA11T£SUtCC'S 
l>MlUCZAVnLAT£ClACl\a0CAS^jULM  FgAiA^r 
<HlCVIA0\uCIC5ClNn0.\5lKUiiIADAUAA$. 


FROM  A   MANT-SfRIPT   OF   VKRCrr.    f AKN-ETO,    BK.    II.   6S9-099)   OF  TIIF,   FOURTH 
CENTURY.        XOTICK  THAT  THi:   WOiiDS   AUK   NOT  SLP.^R.lTED 


West.  FiidcT  it  a  monk  was  required  to  give  up  all  his  pro])erty, 
to  promise  implicit  obedience  to  his  su])erior,  and  to  agree  never 
to  marry.  Tlie  time  which  lie  had  free  from  his  religious  duties 
he  was  expected  to  devote  to  acts  of  charity,  to  manual  labor,  and 
to  the  coj)ying  of  l)ooks. 

623.  Services  which  the  Monasteries  Rendered.  To 
this  last  provision  of  St.  Benedict's  Rule  we  owe  the  i)reservation 
of  the  Latin  classics,  for  if  tluw  had  not  been  |)reserved  in  the 
monasteries,  and  if  copies  of  them  liad  not  l)cer.  made  l)y  the 
monks,  the  greater  part  of  them  would  have  l)een  lost  altogether. 


i 


o 

X 

/. 


o 


o 

H 


THE    BAFUtARIW    IWASlOXs 


251 


U|)  t(»  tlu'ir  rcli^nous  diilicvs;  tlicy  tauo:lit  the  harlKiriaiis  (Christi- 
anity, and  eno:a<,^('(l  in  au;ri('ultun'  and  otlu-r  forms  of  manual 
labor.  In  course  of  lime  life  in  the  monaslci-iivs  came  to  be  rci'Mi- 
latcd  in  accordance  with  a  carefully  developed  system. 

522.  The  **Rule"  of  St.  Benedict.  'Fiie  form  which  it 
finally  took,  and  which  it  kept  in  tlu;  miin  lhron'.i:h  ihe  Middle 
A^-'es  was  oiven  to  it  by  St.  Benedict  in  the  early  pari  of  the  sixth 
century.  He  drew  uj)  a  conslilntion  to  <.«;ov(M'n  (he  celebrated 
monastery  of  .Monte  ( 'assiiu*,  which  he  foundcfl,  aiid  his  "Rule," 
as  it  is  called,  was  ado])ted  by  almost  all  the  monasteries  in  the 

SriU\lACl.\\DWClN5MUlTACl:.\UV3C(Ci.;CUAAiI- 
UlA\l>Vu\U\ASLi:tUAMMri\\CuU\lNJAUCll 
C!ANL\U:S.lDMACU^\\\5lC0M>£MSllW\\i- 
SlC\\NUMuVJlASJL\tlO\Ceii\ilT{^UlCCS 

l>MlUCXMllL\T£Ci.^Ci\a0CASi.lU./\iruM.\Nl- 
<HlCVIA0\uClC5CtNJ10\5lKUiilADAUAA5- 

FROM  .\  M\\i  -I  itii'i     i|    \  I  itoii.  Cm  VI  TO.  hk.   ii.  tisO-GOO)  op  tiii:  fourth 

M.NllUV.         NDl  ICl,     1  llAl'    I  li  I.    \Vt>ii\)<    Ali!      \'»|     -^Li'AUATLU 

West.  I  nder  it  a  monk  wa:>  i«-(jUjre(|  to  u-jve  uj)  all  his  property, 
to  piomise  imj)lic)t  olK-dicnce  to  his  superior,  and  to  aurce  ncNcr 
to  marry.  The  time  which  he  had  \'vcr  from  his  relioiou.s  duties 
he  W[is  exjK'ctcd  to  d«'Vote  to  acts  of  charity,  to  manual  labor,  and 
to  the  co|)yin^'  of  books. 

523.  Services    which    the    Monasteries   Rendered.    To 

this  last  provision  of  St.  Benedict's  Rule  we  owe  the  pn'servalion 
of  the  [^alin  classics,  for  if  tliey  had  not  been  preserve<l  in  the 
monasteries,  and  if  copies  of  them  had  not  been  made  bv  the 
monks,  the  oreater  [)art  of  them  would  have  been  lost  allo<rether. 


252 


ROMAN'    HISTORY 


In  the  monasteries,  too,  tlie  tniveller  found  shelter;  the  |)erse- 
cuted  and  even  the  eriniiiial  found  protection;  the  |)()()r  and 
siek  went  to  them  for  food  nnd  care,  and  those  who  sou<^dit 
esciiH'  from  the  turhuleiicc  of  \hv  world  without,  found  within 
the  shelteriiij;  walls  of  tlie  inona-.terv  an  opportunity  to  lead  a 
life  of  peace,  or  to  pursue  the  studies  to  which  their  tastes  inclined. 

524.  Reasons  for  the  Growth  of  the  Papacy.  The 
otlier  institution  of  the  church  which  bc^an  to  exert  a  great 
iidhu'iice  upon  Euro|)e  l)efore  the  close  of  the  fifth  century  was 
the  |)apaey.  A  vjiriety  of  circumstances  contributed  to  this 
result.  As  we  had  occasion  to  notice  in  tlie  hist  cha|)ter,  the 
cliurch  was  rapidly  developin«>-  into  a  compact  institution,  with 
a  carefully  <,n'adcd  system  of  ccclesiasties,  runnin<.i-  fn>m  the 
«lcriry  throu^':h  the  bishops  to  the  metropolitans.  It  was  natural 
for  the  practical-nnnded  Romans  lo  or<ranize  the  church  in  the 
same  careful  way  as  they  had  or^^anized  tlu^  state.  In  fact,  the 
ecclesiastical  ori!:ani/ati<jn  was  in  larije  measure  su^<;esled  bv 
and  modelled  after  the  polilical  oriranization.  Xow  unitv  was 
given  to  the  state  by  makin.<^^  the  e:n|)eror  tlie  final  soun c  of 
authority.  T'onsccpiently  it  was  natural  to  round  out  the 
ecclesiastical  syst/m  in  a  similar  way  by  making  some  one  person 
the  head  of  the  church. 

525.  The  Bishop  of  Rome  as  the  Successor  of  St.  Peter. 
Several  tliini!:s  combined  to  confer  this  dignity  upon  the  bishop  of 
I{ome,  or  the  pope,  as  that  ofhcial  (wclusivelv  was  called  shortiv 
after  the  fifth  century.  In  the  first  ))lace  he  was  commonly 
regarded  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter,  and,  therefore,  the  primate 
of  the  rhurch,  since  several  passages  in  the  Xew  Testament 
were  interpreted  as  testifying  to  the  fact  that  the  Founder  of 
Christianity  hjid  designated  this  a|)ostle  as  head  of  His  Church. 
Notable  among  these  passages  was  that  one  in  wliich  Christ 
says:  "And  I  say  also  unto  \hv(\  that  tliou  art  Peter,  and  upon 
this  rock  I  will  build  My  Church;  and  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not 
prevail  against  it.  And  I  will  -nvc  unto  thee  tlie  keys  of  the 
kingdom  of  lieaven;  and  whatsoev(>r  thou  shalt  bmd  on  eardi 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven;  and  wh.-.tsoi-vcr  thou  shalt  loose  on 


THE    HAUBAUIAN    IWVSIONS 


— 'Oo 


earth  shall  be  loosed  in  lieaven."  That  St.  Peter  came  to  Rome 
is  made  highly  probable  by  evidence  from  various  .sources,  and 
that  he  organized  the  church  there,  ])resided  over  it,  and  tran.s- 
mitted  his  authority  to  his  sueces.sors,  was  commonly  acee{)ted 
by  the  Catholic  Church  from  an  early  ])eriod.  As  early  as  the 
second  century,  Irenaeus,  the  bishoj)  of  I>yons,  draws  froin  this 
fact  the  conclusion  "that  it  is  a  matter  of  necessity  that  every 
church  should  agree  with  this  cliurch  (/.  (\,  the  church  of  Home), 
on  account  of  its  preeniineiit  authority." 

526.  Rome  the  Traditional  Centre  of  the  Western  World. 
I'he  teiidcncv,  wliich  resulted  from  these  facts,  to  recoi^nize  the 
su|)erior  iiuthority  of  the  head  of  the  Roman  church,  was 
materially  strengthened  by  the  position  which  Rome  had  held 
for  centuries  as  the  political  capital  of  the  world.  Roman 
ciiizcns  had  been  accustomed  to  refer  to  her  all  difficult  (pies- 
lions  for   final   scttlcmi*nt. 

527.  Church  Questions  Submitted  to  Rome.  Now  dis- 
|)Ules  incvita!)ly  arose  among  the  churches  of  Euro{)eon  jioints 
of  doctrine,  morality,  and  church  government,  and  these  (|ue.s- 
tions  were  naturally  referred  to  Rome  for  adjudication.  Thus 
on  important  matters  the  opinion  of  the  cliurch  at  Rome  was 
sought  from  an  early  period,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century  the  Council  of  Sardika  decreed  that  bishops  deposed 
by  a  .synod  should  have  the  right  to  appeal  to  the  bishop  of 
Rome,  and  in  the  same  century  we  hear  of  certain  difficult  (|ue.s- 
tions  submitted  l)y  ;i  Spanish  bishop  to  the  bishop  of  Rome  for 
decision. 

528.  The  Great  Ability  of  Certain  Popes.  The  great 
ability  which  certain  of  the  |)oj)es  of  the  period  showed  extended 
the  influence  of  tlie  pa{)a(y  and  gave  its  decisions  that  recognized 
authority  which  they  enjoyed  later,  ('onspicuous  among  them 
were  Leo  the  (rreat,  who  occupied  the  papal  chair  from  440  to 
4GI,  and  (iregory  the  Great,  po])e  from  590  to  004. 

529.  Leo  the  Great,  A.  D.  440-461.  It  was  Leo  whose 
influence  liel|)ed  to  save  Rome  from  the  hands  of  Attila.  His 
authonty  in  church  matters  was  accej)ted  in  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain, 


i 


2.V1 


!{(>\T\\    niSToKY 


THE    BARBARIAN    INVASIONS 


255 


and  Africa,  ami  it  was  while  lu:  was  al  (lir  licati  of  the  Church  at 
Rome  tliat  Valeiitiiiian  III,  the  ein|)er()r  (if  the  West,  decreed 
that  the  decisions  of  the  pope  should  he  regarded  as  final  through- 
out the  western  world,  ami  that  bisho{)s  should  l)e  forced  by  the 
provincial  governors  to  come  to  Rome  in  response  to  his 
summons. 

530.  Gregory  the  Great,  A.  D.  590  -  604.  The  life  of 
Gregory  carries  us  into  the  next  century,  but,  while  we  are  speak- 
ing of  the  <rn)wih  of  the  paf)acy,  it  will  be  convenient  to  mention 
the  services  wliich  he  rendered  to  the  church  and  the  state. 
Like  his  great  predecessor,  Ia'o,  CJregory  turned  back  from 
central  Italy  a  barbarian  horde,  made  up  this  tiine  of  the  Lom- 
bards. Like  Leo  he  asserted  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman  See. 
His  authority  in  northern  Italy  ninst  have  been  weakened  by  the 
settlement  there  of  the  Lombards,  some  of  whom  were  |)agans 
and  others  Arian^,  but  this  temporary  loss  was  more  than  offset 
bv  the  succ(  M  -  of  lilt  orthod(tx  Franks  in  (raul,  bv  the  con- 
version  (»f  the  Visigoths  to  C 'atholieism,  and  l)y  the  extermi- 
nation of  the  Arian  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in  Africa, — all  of 
which  events  took  [)Iace  in  the  sixth  century.  These  new  ele- 
ments of  strength  were  supplemented  by  tlie  conversion  of 
Britain  to  Mirislianitv,  which  beu^an  during  his  incumbenev  of 
the  papal  olliei-.  In  fact,  thanks  to  his  missionary  spirit,  his 
piety,  tact,  sound  judgment,  his  literary  gifts,  and  his  administra- 
tive ability,  the  i)a[)acy  made  a  long  step  in  advance  toward 
acquiring  that  dominant  ])osition  wliicli  it  held  later  in  the  western 
church  and  the  western  world. 

531.  Summary  Account  of  the  Barbarian  Invasions, 
to  A.  D.  500.  The  danger  from  the  barbarians  to  the  north, 
which,  as  we  observed  in  a  previous  chapter,  threatened  the 
em!)ire  under  Marcus  Aurelius,  took  definite  form  in  this  period. 
The  \  isigotlis,  one  of  tiie  (nTuian  trilies  which  had  been  crowd- 
inj!  into  tlie  empire,  were  forced  across  the  Danube  bv  the  incur- 
sioiis  ot  tlie  Huns,  an  Asiatic  peo|)le,  defeated  the  Romans 
at  .\drianoj>le,  and  were  allowed  to  settle  in  Pumian  territory 
under  tlieir  own   rulers.     At    last   thev  established   themselves 


permanently  in  Gaul  and  Spain.  Other  German  ])eoples  moved 
southward,  the  Vandals  oceu[)ying  Africa,  juid  the  Hurgundians, 
southeastern  Gaul.  Tlie  Huns  rea{)peared  under  Attila,  and 
threatened  the  civilization  of  western  Euro})e,  l)Ut  were  defeated 
at  Chrdons.  The  Danubian  provinces  were  now  held  l)y  the 
Ostrogoths,  Britain  by  the  Piets  and  Scots,  the  lower  Rhine  by 
the  Franks,  and  Italy  by  a  native  prince.  In  other  words, 
the  West  was  divided  uj)  and  occn|)ied  by  die  Germans.  As 
for  the  Empire,  the  final  division  of  it  into  the  P^ast  and 
the  West  was  made  in  IVX),  and  the  last  emi)er()r  in  Rome 
abdicated  in  170.  The  German  kingdoms  nominally  acknowl- 
edged allegianc(>  to  the  emix-ror  in  the  East,  but  really  paid  little 
heed  to  his  authority.  At  tlu^  same  time  they  treated  the  Romans 
well,  and  adopted  much  of  Roman  civilization.  In  particular, 
Christianity  si)read  raj)idly  among  them,  and  two  of  its  institu- 
tions—monaslicism  and  the  i)apaey — came  into  prominence 
in  this  j)eriod. 


CIIAlTEll  XV 

REof:<;A\i/ A  ri()\  (»i    nii;  kmimhe  in  tfie  west 

(a.  i).  :>()()  soo) 

How  t ho  r;erTn;ni  kin^doTri^.  nftcr  .lust iriiaii  ]i:u]  tcnipornrily  regained 
some  (if  tlifin  for  iln-  Kmini"  in  ilir  r,:i- 1 ,  .  Nialilishrd  tln'insflvcs.  ileft-nded 
themselves  against  tlu-  Muliainmeduiis,  and  wcrt"  uniKil  into  an  Empire  by 
Charlemugu*'.  king  of  tie'  Franks. 

632.  Theodoric  Conquers  Italy  in  A.  D.  493.  In  the  last 
chapter  we  left  ( )(l().i(('r  in  conlrol  of  Italv  as  its  |)atrl(ian  or 
governor.  Of  this  position  lie  was  deprived  toward  the  close 
of  the  fiftli  centui-y  l>y  a  host  of  several  hundred  thonsand  Ostro- 
goths, who  moved  southward  from  their  old  liomeon  the  Danube, 
entered  Ital}\  ;md  made  tlieir  kin'T  Tlieodorie  undisputed  master 
of  the  'whole  peninsula.  We  have  had  occasion  to  notice  in 
another  connection  the  restraint  which  many  of  the  (lerman 
kings  showe<l  in  their  dealings  with  the  Romans.  In  Theodo- 
rie's  treatment  of  the  Il;di;uis  this  enlightene<l  and  l)enefic*ent 
policy  is  cons|)icnously  illustniteil.  Except  that  they  were  not 
enrolled  in  the  army,  and  that  they  were  forced  to  give  up  a  j)art 
of  their  land,  the  Italians  enjoyed  the  same  rights  and  jirivileges 
as  the  Germans,  k'vc  ?i  flie  fact  that  they  were  Tatholies,  while 
Theodoric  was  an  Arian,  was  mtt  counted  to  their  disadvantage. 

533.  His  Domestic  Policy.  Tlie  system  wliich  he  adopted 
for  the  govermncnt  of  the  two  ju'oples  was  a  singular  one.  Each 
people  had  its  own  courts  and  administrative  system,  so  that, 
when  two  (Jot lis  were  ;it  varinnce  with  each  other,  the  (piestion 
at  issue  was  heard  Ky  .•!  (Jotliic  judge;  wlien  two  Italians  fell  out, 
they  brought  tlieir  case*  before  an  Italian  judge;  while  an  Italian 
and  a  Gotli  sat  in  judgi:a>iit  wliere  both  Goths  and  Italians  were 
involved.  Theodoric's  policy  was  ecjually  enlightened  on  the 
side  of  the  n.iatcrial  welfare  of  the  pcH)ple.  lie  made  a  vigorous 
effort  to  revive  agriculture  in  the  peninsula;  he  had  the  roads 


('iiAini«:i{  XV 

kk<m;<.  v.\  :/ \  1  ii)\   (.1    Tin:  i.mi-ikk  i\  nil.  wist 

(  \.     ii.    r»(lM    SO!!) 

Iltivs  tin-  (.rnii.in  k  iiiLrditiii'N.  !i(t<r  .In-;.;    ..;     1i;Mi    1 1  ?ii]i"  .I'itiily  r»'L';iin«'(l 

soiii"-   ol     \]\>n\    for    t!f    l-jri'jf'-    ill  t!:.-    !-"-i  ~  r .  fst  :i  hlish-  .  i    Nifiusi'lVfS.  (Iffriuicd 

tht*lMstlV(  s  .!  ;    u.  i'    lillittil    into  ;iii   I'.liiiiirc-  b\ 

Charirijia)4iir.  kiii,^  I  ■;  tin-  i'r;i!iiv^. 

532.  Theodoric  Conquers  Italy  in  A.  D.  493.  In  flic  last 
(•li{i])trr  We  let!  (  )(l(i.-M(T  in  coiih-nl  dl*  Il.-ily  ;i>  \\<.  j)atrician  or 
governor.  ( )1'  tliis  posilioii  lie  was  dcpriNcd  lownrd  llic  close 
of  the  fifth  ci-ntni'v  hy  ;i  host  of  '  \rr;il  iiniKhcd  ihonsand  (  )slro- 
goths,  \\  lio  moved  southward  from  dieii-old  home  on  the  Dannhe, 
entered  I};ily,  and  miidc  Ma  ir  kinii;  Theodoiic  nndispnied  mailer 
of  the  whole  |>eninsnla.  W  <  have  had  occa^ion  to  noti<'e  in 
another  conneclion  ihc  i*estr:iint  which  mniiy  of  the  (Jei-man 
kings  showed  in  their  dealinj-'s  widi  lli--  Komans.  In  'Flieodo- 
ric's  [n\'itment  of  ihe  Italians  this  enhghlened  and  henefic(>nf 
[>oli<y  is  coii>j>i«U(»n>ly  ilhKlr:i(i«l.  Mxicpi  ihat  lhc\  wci-c  not 
cnn)!l(Ml  in  die  army,  and  that  they  were  foree(l  to  idvc  np  a  jiart 
of  their  land,  the  Ilidians  (  iijommI  die  same  rights  ami  jn-ivilegcs 
as  the  (ici-nians.  i''v(  ii  the  faej  that  ila'y  were  ( 'atliolit-s,  while 
Thecxloric  was  an  Arian,  w.is  net  cdnnlcd  to  their  di^advanl;ige. 

633.  His  Domestic  Policy.  The  >y.>tcin  which  he  adopted 
for  tlu- go\('}-!ntHMil  of  ihe  two  peoples  was  a  singular  one.  Ivich 
peoj>ic  Iiad  its  own  <'oiirf>  ;ind  ;idministrative  system,  so  that. 
when  tw(»  (Jolhs  vere  at  variance  with  each  other,  the  (jnestion 
at  issue  was  lieard  hy  ;!  ( iotliic  judge;  w  hen  two  Italians  fi-ll  ont, 
they  li'/un^ht  the!!  e.-i--  Ijifnrr  ;iii  Italian  judge;  while  sin  Italian 
and  a  (iotii  sat  in  jnd  '    re  hoth  Clolhs  and  Italians  were 

involved.  Theodoric's  |>oiicy  was  e(jnally  ciiliiditciied  on  the 
side  of  the  material  W(>lfare  of  die  people.  He  made  a  vigorous 
effort   to  revive  agricnllnie  in   die  peninsnla;  he  had   the  roads 


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RKORCANIZATION   OF   TIIK    EMPIRE    E\    THE   WEST 


257 


and  aquoducts  repaired,  and  s|)ent  large  sums  in  restoring  public 
monuments  at  Rome  and  elsewhere. 

534.  His  Patronage  of  Letters.  Although  he  was  illiter- 
ate himself,  he  was  the  })atron  of  letters  and  honored  with 
high  offiee  Boethius,  the  last  Latin  writer  in  whose  works  the 
true  elassical  spirit  found  expression.  The  principal  work  of 
Boethius,  a  treatise  On  ihe  Consolation  of  Philosophy,  wsls 
much  read  during  tlie  Middle  Ages,  and  had  an  immense 
influence  on  the  thought  of  the  period. 

535.  His  Foreign  Policy.  Theodoric's  foreign  was  as  wise 
as  his  (I imestie  policy.  Noricum  and  Raetia  were  brought 
under  his  control;  he  married  the  sister  of  Chlodovic,  the  ambi- 
tious  king  of  the  Franks;  one  of  his  daughters  he  gave  in  marriage 
to  a  Burgundiaii  |)rince,  another  to  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
and  his  sister  he  wedded  to  the  king  of  the  Vandals.  By  these 
means  he  secured  jdliances  with  all  the  principal  Teutonic 
states.  A  turn  in  fortune  made  his  influence  still  greater.  I  lis 
son-in-law  Alaric  w.is  slain  in  battle,  and,  during  the  minority 
of  Alaric's  son,  he  assumed  the  regency  of  the  Visigothic  kingdom 
in  Spain  and  southern  Gaul. 

536.  Fate  of  the  Ostrogothic  Kingdom.  In  fact,  the 
western  world  seemed  on  tlie  point  of  being  united  once  more 
under  a  single  rul(M%  but  the  tim(\s  were  not  yet  ripe  for  such  an 
outcome.  Europe  had  still  three  centuries  to  wait  for  its  Charle- 
magne, and  within  thirty  years  of  Tlieodoric's  death  the  great 
Ostrogothic  kingdom,  v;hicli  had  })ecn  Iniilt  up  largely  by  his 
efforts,  was  overthrown  1)V  Justinian,  the  eastern  emperor,  and 
the  Ostrogoths,  as  a  [)eople,  disappear  from  the  pages  of  history. 

"537.  Why  the  Empire  in  the  East  Survived.  In  tracing 
the  course  of  events  in  Euro])e  we  have  lost  sight  of  the  Empire  in 
the  East.  That  this  part  of  the  Roman  world  maintained  its 
integrity,  while  the  Empire  in  the  West  was  disrupted,  was  due 
to  a  varietv  of  causes.  TIk^  citv  of  Byzantium  was  too  well 
placed  and  too  strongly  fortified  to  be  taken  readily  by  undisci- 
plined troops  with  few  engin(\s  of  war.  Its  access  to  the  sea  made 
it  difficult  for  a  ( Jcrman  fj)rce  to  reduce*  it  by  starvation,  for  none 


258 


ROMAN    IIIHTORY 


of  the  Germanic  peoples,  s;i\e  the  Vandals,  had  a  navy.  Fur- 
thermore, the  tide  of  the  barbarian  invasions  turned  rather 
toward  the  southwest,  and  the  empire  in  the  East  suffered  less 
from  this  source  of  danger  than  did  Europe;  and,  when  the  East 
was  threatened,  the  eastern  emperors  showed  more  diplomacy 
or  more  energy  tlian  the  vacillating,  jealous  rulers  of  the  West. 
The  system  of  trovcrnnicnt  and  the  social  and  economic  condi- 
tions were  better  in  the  East  than  in  tlie  W(>st.  These  causes 
with  others  combined  to  save  the  eastern  world  from  the  fate 
which  befell  the  otlier  half  of  the  empire. 

538.  Justinian,  A.  D.  527-565.  In  the  century  which 
followed  tlie  death  of  Theodosius,  the  last  ruler  of  the  whole 
Rom*an  world,  no  one  of  the  emperors  at  liyzantium  is  a  man  of 
much  ability;  but  Justinian,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  oL*?, 
deservedly  holds  a  most  <lislinguislied  place  in  Roman  history. 
His  lively  interest  in  pliilosophieal  (piestions  reminds  one  of 
Mjircus  Aurelius,  liis  passion  for  bnilding,  of  Trajan,  his  tireless 
activity  and  liis  interest  in  the  law,  of  Hadrian.  In  addition  to 
the  other  qualities  which  he  possessed,  Justinian  had  a  faculty 
which  is  most  essential  in  a  niler — the  ability  to  pick  out  the 
right  men  for  the  business  in  hand.  Such  men  he  found  in 
Belisarius  his  general,  in  Tribonian  the  great  jurist,  and  in 
Anthemius  the  architect  of  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 

539.  His  Conquest  of  Africa.  His  most  dramatic  enter- 
prise was  his  plan  to  reunite  tlie  Roman  world  by  reconquering 
the  jMediterranean  provinces  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa.  His 
principal  agent  in  this  great  undertaking  was  Belisarius.  The 
conquest  of  Africa  was  elfected  with  a  force  of  but  fifteen  thou- 
sand men,  the  Vandal  kingdom  was  l)rought  to  an  end,  and  tlie 
authority  of  the  em|)eror  was  reestal>lished. 

540.  He  Regains  Italy  in  A.  D.  535.  In  535,  just  two 
years  after  the  conquest  of  Africa,  Belisarius  landed  in  Sicily 
with  the  apparently  insignificant  force  of  severity- five  hundred 
men,  and  crossed  to  Italy.  Notwithstanding  the  small  size  of 
his  army,  however,  liis  advance  into  Italy  was  almost  a  triumphal 
march.     The  Italians,  disaffected  toward  their  Gothic  rulers, 


REORGANIZATION   OF  THE   EMPIRE   IN   THE   WEST         259 

opened  the  gates  of  the  cities  in  southern  Italy  to  him,  the  Goths 
made  only  a  feel)lc  resistance,  and  within  a  year  and  a  half 
Rome  fell  into  his  hands.     But  the  Goths  were  strong  in  northern 
Italy,  and  from  this  (piarter  in  the  following  spring  came  a  force 
of  one  hundred  thousand  men  under  the  Gothic  king  Witiges  to 
recapture   the   city.     Eor   its   defense   Belisarius   had   but   five 
thousand,  and  yet  with  this  handful  of  men  he  held  the  city 
against  the  towers  and  rams  of  the  enemy,  against  their  desperate 
onslaught,  and  in  spite  of  the  terrors  of  hunger.     For  a  year  the 
siege  continued.     Then  news  reached  the  camp  of  the  besiegers 
that  an   imperial   army  had  entered   northern  Italy  and  was 
threatening  Ravenna.     These  tidings  called  the  Gothic  king  to 
the  north,  and  Belisarius,  following  him,  assumed  command  of 
the  reinforcements  from  the  east,  and  ultimately  took  Ravenna 
and  captured  king  Witiges.     The  coiKjuest  of  Italy  seemed  to 
be  elfected,  and  Belisarius  returned  to  Byzantium  to  celebrate 
his  trium})h.     But   the  fortunes  of  the  Goths  at  this  low  ebb 
found  a  champion  in  their  young  king  Baduila,  v,ho  for  his 
chivalry,  his  generosity,  and  his  unselfish  devotion  to  the  cause 
of  his  i)eo|)le,  has  been  styled  "the  first  of  the  knights  of  the 
IVliddle  Ages."     He  recovered  northern  Italy,  captured  Naples 
and  Rome,  held  in  check  Belisarius,  who  had  lieen  sent  back  to 
Italy,  and  for   twchc  years   upheld   the   Gothic  cause   in   the 
peninsula.     His  defeat  at   last  by   the  imperial  general  Narses 
and  his  death  crushed  all  danger  of  further  resistance  and  Italy 
became  once  more  a  part  of  the  empire. 

541.  Southern  Spain  is  Added  to  Justinian's  Realm. 
Scarcely  had  the  conquest  of  Italy  been  completed  when  civil 
war  in  Spain  gave  Justinian  an  opportunity  to  interfere  there. 
Tiberius,  the  imperial  governor  of  Africa,  crossed  to  Cadiz  on 
the  invitation  of  the  rebels,  and  established  himself  in  southern 
S|)ain.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  Visigoths  quickly 
comj)osed  their  difficulties,  tluy  could  not  dislodge  the  imperial 
troops,  and  for  a  half  century  the  southern  coast  of  Spain  with 
its  important  towns  was  held  for  the  eastern  emperor.  With 
the  conquest  of  Africa,  Italy,  and  southern  Spain,  Justinian's 


2(iO 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


(Irojun  of  briiigin^^    tin     Mrditcrraiican    nndcM-   his   coiilrol   was 
realiziMl. 

542.  The  Persian  Wars,  A.  D.  540  -  645.  The  clicck  which 
Justinian  put  on  the  ambitious  (k'sij^ns  of  tlic  Persian  monarch 
Chosrocs  was  perhaps  of  more  permanent  si}i;nificance  than  his 
eoiKiuesls  in  Europe.  I'he  <;«-'ern  i)oU'ntate,  lakiuj;  advantaif-e 
of  tlic  fact  tluit  .lustinian  wa.^  .>.  rui)ie(l  in  Italy,  found  a  pretext 
for  a  (juarrel  with  him,  deehired  war,  invach-d  northern  Syria  and 
captured  Antioeh.  IJehsarius  served  his  nuister  to  ».^()od  purpose 
in  tliis  war  also,  for  the  eastern  monarch  was  uUinuitely  hrou^dit 
to  si^n  a  treaty  of  peace  in  whicli  lie  agreed  to  retire  to  his  own 
territory  and  to  give  up  Iiis  designs  of  coiKiue^t.  Only  once  in 
later  years  did  the  IVrsians  tlu-ealen  tlie  emj)ire,  and  then  the 
decisive  victory  which  tlie  emperor  Ileraeiius  won  ovei-  them  at 
Nineveli  removed  all  danger  from  that  (piarter.  Justini;in  and 
Heraclius,  therefore,  not  only  saved  the  eini)ire,  but  they  saved 
Euro|>e  also  from  the  danger  of  Persian  invasion. 

543.  The  Significance  of  Justinian's  Code.  Yet  Justinian 
is  best  known  lo  us,  not  througii  his  military  exploits,  notable  a> 
thev  were,  l)Ut  througii  his  code  of  laws.  Hie  code  (»f  Justinian 
eonstitntes  j>erhaps  the  most  enduring,  the  mosi  characteristic, 
and  tlie  most  valuable  legacy  which  the  Roman  people  have 
left  to  us.  It  l)nngs  togetlier  legal  principles  and  rules  covering 
all  tlie  dealings  of  man  with  his  fellow-man,  which  the  most 
praetical  people  of  anticpiity  had  dev(>loped  in  its  experience  of 
more  than  a  thousand  vears.  'Phis  body  of  lav;,  which  forms 
the  basis  of  the  legal  system  of  a  great  part  of  Europe,  would 
probably  not  liave  survived  Iiad  it  not  l)een  [)ut  in  a  systematic, 
permanent  form  by  Justinian. 

544.  The  Contents  of  the  Code.  To  carry  out  his  great 
enterprise  of  codifyiui;  the  law,  he  appointed  a  commission  of 
jurists  under  the  leadership  of  'Priboniiin,  and  after  working 
several  rears  this  eommi.Nsion  f)ublished  the  n  suit  of  its  labors. 
The  code  which  it  drew  up  consists  of  four  parts,  the  Pandects 
or  Diges'f,  which  contains  opinions  on  important  points  in  law, 
taken  from  tlie  treatises  ol"  all  the  great  writers  of  legal  literature 


riEORr..\MZ.\TIO.\    OK   THE    EMPIRE    IN    THE   WEST 


261 


from  the  first  century  B.  c.  to  the  fourth  century  A.  D.;  the 
Irut'dutes,  a  handbook  for  the  study  of  law;  the  Codex,  which 
brings  together  the  edicts,  official  instructions,  and  judicial 
decisions  of  all  the  emperors,  and  the  Novellae,  or  new  imperial 
laws,  issued  after  the  first  three  parts  had  been  finished. 

545.  Justinian  as  a  Builder.     Like  Trajan,  Justinian  spent 


ST.   SOPHIA  AT  CONSTANTINOPLE 


nnmense  .sums  of  money  in  building  churches,  aqueducts,  and 
bridges,  in  fortifying  towns  and  in  constructing  forts  in  all  parts 
of  tne  empire.  An  entire  volume  by  Procopius,  an  historian 
of  the  time,  is  denoted  to  the  emperor's  l)uildings  and  public 
works.     The  most  noteworthy  of  these   is   the  church  of  St, 


2()(» 


liO.M.W     iUSl'tK^ 


(Irrj'iii  of  l>rin<^iti^^    lln     Mr(iil(Tr;inc;ni    uihIit    Ih>    conlrol    wa.s 
realized. 

542.  The  Persian  Wars,  A.  D.  540  -  545.  ^'ln-  vUvck  which 
Justinian  |)iil  on  ihc  ainhitioii.s  (le.^i^nis  of  ihc  Persian  nionanii 
ChoM'oes  was  perliaps  of  more  |)<Tniain  iil  si<jjnifieaii<-e  than  his 
eoiKjnests  in  Kurope.  1'he  rasfcrn  |)olenlate,  taking  advanla;'*- 
uf  tlie  fact  that  Justinian  wa^  .Mcnpitd  in  Italy,  found  a  pretext 
for  a  (juarrel  with  liini,  declared  war,  invaded  nortlu  rii  Syria  and 
captured  Antioch.  IJeli^arius  scrv(>d  his  master  to  o'ood  j)urpoM' 
in  this  war  al>o,  for  the  eastern  moiiaivh  was  ultiuuitely  l)rou;^dit 
to  si^ni  a  treaty  of  peace  in  wliieh  he  airreed  to  retire  to  his  own 
territory  and  to  ^'ive  up  his  de>i;^n.^  of  con(|Uest.  (  )nly  once  in 
later  year.>  did  the  Persians  threaten  the  empire,  and  then  the 
decisive  victorv  which  the  (Mupi  ror  Ileraeiius  won  ovei-  them  at 
Xineveh  removed  all  daui^cr  from  thai  (piarter.  Justinian  and 
IIeracliu>,  therefore,  not  only  sa\c<l  the  enij)ire  hut  they  sa\cd 
Europe  alM»  from  the  dani'er  (»f  l*er>i;in  inva>ion. 

543.  The  Significance  of  Justinian's  Code.  Vet  Justinian 
is  hot  known  to  Us,  not  throu'di  his  military  exploits,  notjd)le  as 
thev  wen  ,  hut  thron-di  his  code  of  laws.  'IJie  code  of  Justinian 
eonstilult's  perhaps  Ih;  inosl  cndurni;.'.  the  most  characteristic, 
and  the  most  vahiahic  Icj^acy  which  tin  Roman  peoj»lc  have 
left  to  us.  It  hriniis  lou'cther  hual  principles  and  rules  eoverin«i- 
all  the  dealin,irs  of  man  with  liis  t\'llow-nuiii,  which  the  most 
[iractical  pe«)p!e  of  anl!f|uity  had  dev(>!oped  in  its  e.xpericnc-e  of 
more  than  a  thousan<i  vears.     This  body  of  law,  which  hjrnis 

the  ha  is  of  the  lee-'l  J'  <>*  '*  r'*^'*''  !'•*''*  "*"  l'^>i''<>|>*''  \v<>uld 

prohalJy  not  have  survived  ha.d  it  n(»t  been  |)Ut  in  a  systematic, 
permanenl  hu'm  l)y  Juslmian. 

544.  The  Contents  of  the  Code.  To  carrv  out  his  inc;,t 
enterprise  of  codifyin'/  tlie  law,  hi-  appointed  a  eonnnission  of 
iurists  under  the  leadership  of  Trib(»nian,  and  after  workinu" 
.sev(Tal  vears  this  conuiiission  published  the  result  of  its  labors. 
The  code  wliicli  it  drew  u|)  eousisN  of  four  parts,  the  Pandrris 
or  D/'/csi,  vvhi«h  eontains  opinions  on  important  points  in  law, 
taken  from  the  treatises  of  all  the  j^n-eat  writ<rs  of  leoal  literature 


HE()H(;.\.\1ZATI(>.\    OK   Tin:    FvMPIHK    l\     ITU-:   WKST 


261 


from  the  first  century  H.  c.  to  the  fourth  century  a.  d.;  the 
In.siilufcs',  a  handl>ook  for  the  study  of  law;  the  Codex,  which 
brin^^s  too:clher  the  edicts,  official  instruetio?is,  and  judicial 
decisions  of  all  the  emperors,  and  the  Norelhw,  or  new  im|)erial 
laws,  issued  aftci'  the  first  three  parts  had  been  finished. 

545.  Justinian  as  a  Builder.     Like  Trajan,  Justinian  spent 


.ST.    SOPHIA   AT  CONSTANTINOPLK 


lunnense  sums  of  money  in  buildinif  churches,  nquodiicts,  and 
l)rid<^es,  in  fortifyin^r  towns  and  in  construeliiiir  forts  \\\  all  parts 
of  tne  e?nj)ire.  \n  entire  volume  by  Proccjpins,  an  historian 
of  tlu'  time,  is  devoted  to  the  emj)eror's  buildin<i;s  and  public 
works.     The    most    notcnvorthv   of   tliese    is    the   church   of  St. 


5iitT:"B5WTWS39 


262 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


Sophia  in  Constantinople,  which  he  rebuilt  after  its  destruction 
by  fire. 

546.  The  Fall  of  Constantinople  in  A.  D.  1453.     It  is  not 

essential  to  our  jjurpose  to  follow  the  history  of  the  empire  in  the 
East  beyond  the  rei^ni  of  Justinian.  The  Persians  were  obliged 
by  Ilcraciius  in  the  seventh  century  to  give  up  their  plans  of  con- 
([ucst,  as  we  have  already  noticed;  the  Saracens  were  forced  to 
abandon  the  sic^^^e  of  Constantinople  in  the  following  century, 
and  the  city  held  out  against  all  the  assaults  from  the  East  until 
it  was  taken  l>y  the  Turks  in  1453. 

547.  Constantinople  and  the  Greek  Classics.    The  fact 
tliat  it  did  not  fjdl  until  the  date  just  mentioned  was  of  immense 
significance  for  the  culture  of  Euro[)e.     The  fourteenth  century 
in  Italy  was  the  dawn  of  a  new  life.     The  world  emerged  from 
the  intellectual  darkness  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  a  great  impetus 
was  given  to  the  new  development  by  the  discovery  in  monas- 
teries, wliere  ihvy  had  long  lain  neglected,  of  the  works  of  the 
great  Latin  writers.     But  the  I.atin  classics  abound  witli  refer- 
ences to  (Jreek  literature.     Vergil  suggests  Homer;  Cicero  points 
to   DeiMostlicncs  and  Plato.     Their  accpiaintance  with  Latin 
literature  made  scholars  eager  to  know  something  of  Greek,  but, 
unhappily,  Greek  books  were  not  to  be  found  in  the  West,  and 
the  (ireek  language  was  unknown.     It  was  a  most  fortunate 
thing  for  civilization,  therefore,  that  (\)nstantinople  was    able 
to  hold  out  until  the  western  world  was  thus  })repared  to  receive 
tlu"  Greek  classics.     Had  slie  fallen  even  a  century  or  two  earlier, 
quite  i)ossibly  (Ireek  literature  would  have  been  lost  with  her. 
As  it  was,   Greeks  came  to   Italy  from  ( 'onstantino|)le  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  bringing  with  them  the  Greek  classics  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  (hvvk  tongue,  and  in  this  way  the  i)riceless 
treasures  of  Greek  literature  liave  been  preserved  to  us. 

548.  The  Lombards  Invade  Italy  in  A.  D.  568.  We  left 
Italy  under  the  dominjition  of  the  emperor  in  the  East,  but  this 
regime  was  short-lived.  In  the  army  with  which  Xarses,  the  im- 
perial general,  liac  1  completed  the  concpiest  of  Italy  were  five  thou- 
sand Lombards  under  the  command  of  their  king.     The  Lorn- 


REORGANIZATIOX    OK    THE    EMPIRE    IN    THE    WEST 


263 


bards  were  at  this  time  living  in  Pannonia,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  war  returnetl  to  their  own  homes.  But  they  did  not  forget  the 
fertile  fields  of  Italy  and  when  Narses  had  grow  n  old  and  feeble, 
and  no  longer  liad  the  full  confidence  of  the  emperor,  their  king 
led  them  down  into  Italy,  and  settled  them,  without  meeting 
serious  resistance,  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  In  the  course  of  a 
few  years  they  extended  the  limits  of  their  kingdom  to  include 
the  greater  part  of  northern  and  central  Italy. 

549.  Political  Divisions  in  Italy.  The  Lombards  were 
less  civilized  than  the  Ostrogoths,  and  curiously  disinclined  to 
act  together  and  in  a  systematic  way,  so  that  the  Lombard 
chiefs  estal)lishcd  a  luunber  of  essentially  independent  duchies, 
as  they  were  called,  in  the  i)eninsula,  and  the  Lombard  troops, 
without  any  very  a])parent  reason,  i)assed  by  one  district  to 
coiKjuer  another  and  settle  there.  Thus  Italy  was  parcelled 
out  into  a  number  of  Lombard  duchies,  and  into  half  a  dozen 
other  districts,  noteworthy  among  these  being  Rome  and 
Ravenna,  whicli  still  recognized  the  authority  of  the  emperor. 

550.  How  the  Pope  Acquired  Temporal  Authority.  It 
was  at  this  time  that  (iregory  the  Great  ascended  the  papal 
throne,  and  henceforth  the  tcm])oral  authority  of  the  pap- 
acy, that  is,  its  infiuencc  in  secular  affairs,  becomes  an  im- 
portant factor.  The  dcveloi)ment  was  very  natural.  Rcjuie 
was  cut  off  from  Constantinople  by  the  Lombards,  and  the 
|)rincipal  re})resentative  of  the  em])eror  had  left  Rome  and  taken 
u[)  his  residence  at  Rjivenna.  The  pope  was,  therefore,  the 
most  infiuential  i)ersonage  in  Rome,  and  upon  his  shoulders 
gradually  fell  the  responsil)ility  for  the  maintenance  of  law  and 
order,  and  the  conduct  of  })olitical  affairs.  Then,  too,  large 
tracts  of  land  in  various  [)arts  of  the  empire  had  from  time 
to  time  l)een  given  to  the  pope,  and  these  he  had  to  admin- 
ister through  his  agents.  In  tliis  way  he  acquired  tlie  position 
of  a  political  ruler. 

551.  Britain  Conquered  by  the  Angles  and  Saxons.  It 
is  to  Gregory  the  Great  that  the  conversion  of  Britain  to  Chris- 
tianity is  due.     The  lot  of  the  islanders  for  two  centuries  had  been 


264 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


a  very  uiiha|>j)v  one.  Under  Roman  rule  the  Britons  had  heconie 
so  dependent  upon  their  masters  for  [Jrotection  that  wlien  the 
Roman  troo|)s  were  reeaUed  from  tlie  iskmd  in  407  the  natives 
were  utterly  ineapable  of  defeiulin<^  themselves,  and  the  Piets  and 
Scots  to  tile  north  of  the  ^reat  wall  overran  the  whole  country. 
In  their  des})eratioii  they  appealed  for  hel|)  to  the  Angles,  the 
Saxons,  and  the  Jutes.  In  the  fifth  century  these  peoj)les,  who 
lived  hi  Denmark  and  the  country  to  the  south,  came,  hut  not  so 
much  to  hel[)  the  Britons  iis  to  seize  tlieir  land.  The  invaders 
were  even  more  uncivilized  than  the  Lombards.  C'onsecpiently 
Roman  civilization  was  stamped  out  entirely,  and  the  new 
civilization  wliich  develoj)e<l  in  the  island  was  of  pure  Germanic 
origin. 

552.  Conversion  of  the  Britons  to  Christianity.  The 
newcomers  were  pagan>,  and  so  tluy  contimied  to  he  until  the 
time  of  Gregory.  His  admiration  was  aroused  one  day  at  Rome 
by  some  fair-haired  British  captives  in  the  slave-mart,  and, 
grieving  to  think  that  llay  and  their  countrymen  were  still 
heathen,  he  sent  forty  monks  to  the  island  under  a  prior  named 
Augustine  to  evangelize  it.  ( )f  llieir  experiences  iji  Britain 
we  hear  in  the  Ecch's'uisticdl  II i.sfon/  oj  Ktif/land  writti-n  in  the 
next  century  l)y  an  English  monk  named  Baeda:  ''In  (his  island 
landed  tlie  servant  of  our  Lord,  Augustine,  Jind  his  compan- 
ions. .  .  .  The  king,  having  lieard  tlieir  message,  ordered  them 
to  stay  in  that  island  wliere  thev  had  landed  and  that  thev  should 
l)e  furnished  with  all  nccr^^nrii  s  till  he  should  consider  what 
to  do  with  them."  His  (ucimou  was  a  favorable  one,  h)r  we 
hear  that  "he  permitted  them  to  reside  in  the  city  of  Canter- 
bury, wliich  was  the  metropolis  o.f  all  his  dominions,  and 
pursuant  of  his  ju'omise,  besides  allowing  them  sustenance, 
did  not  refuse  them  the  liberty  to  preach."  Canterbury  has 
ever  since  been  regarded  as  the  religious  ci;ntre  of  England,  and 
from  this  point  the  Christianization  of  the  whole  island  was  ulti- 
matelv  effected. 

653.  Few  Conquests  of  the  Germans  Lasting.     We  liave 
followed  the  history  of  seven  braiicln's  of  the  (iermanic  peo|)les. 


KEOKGANIZATION    OF   THE   EMI'IllE    IN   THE   WEST  265 

We  have  seen  Africa  seized  and  occupied  for  a  century  by  the 
Vandals,  Spain  and  a  part  of  Gaul  concpiered  by  the  Visigoths 
and  the  Burgundians,  Britain  overrun  by  the  Angles  and  Saxons, 
and  Italy  held  l)y  llie  Ostrogoths  until  they  were  dispossessed  by 
the  Lond)ards,  who  in  their  turn  were  ultimately  overthrown  by 
the  Franks.     Of  all  th(>se  concjuests,  only  those  of  the  Angles 
and  Saxons  were  permanent.     The  Vandals  were  driven  out  of 
Africa,   as   we    liave   noticed,    by    the   eastern    emperor.     The 
Ostrogoths  lost   Italy,  and  finally  the  followers  of  Mohammed 
took  Spain  from  the  Visigoths,  and  the  Franks  concjuered  the 
Visigoths  and  Burgundians  in  Gaul,  and  later  the  Lombards  in 
Italy.      It    is   to   these    last    tw(;  events —the    con(piests   of   the 
Franks  and  of  the  .Mohammedans— that  we  have  now  come  in 
our  narrative. 

554.  The  Franks  not  a  Roving  People.  Unlike  the  other 
Teutonic  peoples  the  Franks  were  not  of  a  roving  disposition. 
We  recall  the  raids  of  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  and  the  long  wan- 
derings of  the  Vandals,  the  Visigoths,  and  the  Ostrogoths, 
before  they  settled  |)ermanently.  But  the  Franks  never  went 
far  from  their  original  homes.  They  contented  themselves 
witli  gradually  pushing  forward  their  frontiers,  until  they  had 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  territory  about  them,  and  in 
this  enlarged  domain  they  took  u])  their  j)ermanent  abode. 

555.  Their  Early  Conquests.  The  two  branches  of  this 
people,  the  Salians  and  the  Ripuarians,  lived  along  the  lower 
Rhine  wluni  they  become  known  to  us.  In  a  batUe  near 
Soissons  in  486,  when  their  career  of  conquest  begins,  they 
defeated  the  Roman  go\ernor  Syagrius  and  thus  gained  control 
of  northern  (laul  as  far  as  the  river  Loire. 

556.  The  Franks  Become  Christians.  Their  leader  in 
this  successful  war  was  Clovis,  with  whom  one  may  say  that  the 
Frankish  kingdom  begins.  His  next  campaign  was  against 
the  Alemarmi  who  lived  across  the  Rhine  in  the  Black  Forest. 
Clovis  himself  was  a  heathen,  but  Queen  Clotilda,  his  wife,  was 
a  Christian;  and,  when  Clovis  found  himself  hard  pressed  by  his 
enemies  in  a  battle  near  Strassburg,  he  took  a  vow^  that  he  would 


2(>G 


KDMAX     IIISTOKV 


become  a  Christian  if  tlir  (J(k1  of  the  riiHstiaiis  would  j^ivc  him 
victory.  The  event  turned  oul  a.^  he  wi.^hed,  and  (lovi.s  had 
himself  and  tliree  tliou.saiid  of  his  foUowers  baptized  into  the 
Christian  faith. 

657.  Results  of  Their  Conversion.  This  event  did  not 
lead  to  any  noteworthy  ehanjre  in  the  charaeler  of  Clovis  and 
his  men.  He  eontnmed  to  be  a>  .^ava;j:e  an<l  unscrupulous  as  he 
had  been  before,  Init  the  political  results  of  liis  conversion  were 
far-reaching'.  The  other  (Jerinanic  [)eoples  wrre  Arians,  as  we 
have  already  noticed,  while  the  Koman  peoples  in  whose  territory 
they  settled  were  orthodox.  This  (hfference  in  creed  kept  the 
two  elements  of  the  p(»pulation  at  variance  with  each  other. 
Now,  fortunately  for  the  future  of  the  Frankish  aml)itioMs, 
Cknis  became  an  orthodox  (1ni>tian.  Tliis  circumstance  not 
only  brou^dit  him  the  support  tA'  his  own  Koman  subjects,  but 
also  enlisted  in  hi.>  behalf  the  >ccirt  svmpathv  of  the  orthodox 
Romans  wiio  lived  in  s(»uthcrn  (iaul,  for  botii  the  Visio-othic  and 
the  Bur<^nnidian  kin^s  were  Arians.  This  situation  of  cour^ 
favored  <1ovis's|)lans  of  concpast.  His  acceptance  of  orthodoxy 
also  made  him  the  natural  champion  in  the  West  of  the  papacy, 
and  led  in  time  to  an  alliance  between  the  poj)e  and  the  Franks 
which  was  of  o-nat  si^-nificance  for  western  Europe. 

658.  Clovis  Conquers  Gaul.  The  lieretical  l>elief  of  his 
Bur«(undian  nciirhbors  furnished  Clovis  with  a  ready  pretext 
for  the  invasion  of  tlieir  territory,  and  his  desire  to  teach  the  true 
faith  at  the  [joint  of  the  swonl  led  him  to  make  war  upon  the 
Visi*roths  also.  In  both  eamj)ai^ns  he  was  successful.  The 
Bu'-gundians  were  obli^^^ed  to  acknowledge  his  overlordship,  and 
the  Visigoths  were  forced  to  give  up  (iaul  and  retire  into  Spain. 
Before  Ins  death  in  511  he  had  brougiil  under  his  control  almost 
all  of  Gaul  from  the  Rhine  to  tlie  Garonne. 

559.  Kingdom  of  the  Franks  under  the  Merovingians. 
His  kingdom  at  his  deatli  was  divided  among  liis  four  sons. 
They  were  soon  at  \ariance  with  one  another,  and  for  a  [Jcriod 
of  a  hundred  year,  intrigue,  murder,  and  civil  war  ran  riot. 
Notwithstanding  this  dissension  among  themselves  the  vigor  of 


REORGAXIZATION    OF   THE   EMPIRE   IN   THE   WEST  2()7 

the  Franks  was  such  that  their  territorv  steadilv  inerea.sed  in 
extent,  until  under  Dagobert  in  628,  when  the  Merovingian 
dynasty,  as  the  family  of  Clovis  was  called,  reached  tlie  highest 
point  of  its  power,  the  Frankish  kingdom  included  Belgium, 
Holland,  France,  and  western  Germany. 

660.  The  Mayor  of  the  Palace.  Although  the  entire 
Frankish  territory  was  united  under  Dagobert,  it  was  made  up 
of  three  states  which  at  various  times  in  the  past  had  been  inde- 
pendent of  one  another,  Austrasia  the  eastern  kingdom,  Neustria 
the  western  kingdom,  and  Burgundy,  and  each  of  these  had  its 
own  administrative  officers.  Now  it  happened  that  Dagobert, 
when  he  ascended  the  throne,  was  a  very  young  man,  and  he 
relied  largely  for  a<lvice  upon  Pippin,  one  of  the  court  officials 
in  Austrasia,  known  as  the  Mavor  of  the  Palace.  The  Ions 
period  of  years  during  whicli  Pippin  really  directed  the  govern- 
ment and  the  jd)ility  which  he  showed  mad(^  him  more  powerful 
in  Austrasia  than  the  king  himself.  Pipj)in's  son  managed  to 
succeed  to  his  fa  tiler's  authority,  the  position  of  Mayor  of  the 
Palace  became  hereditary  in  the  family,  known  as  the  Caro- 
lingian,  and  in  Austrasia  the  king  became  a  mere  pnj)pet  in  the 
hands  of  this  official. 

561.  Pippin  Becomes  Ruler  of  all  the  Franks  in  A.  D.  687. 
The  Mayor  of  the  Palace  in  Neustria,  on  the  other  hand,  sup- 
})orted  the  king  against  the  n»)])ility,  and  the  nobility  appealed 
to  Austrasia  for  heli).  This  was  granted  by  Pippin,  tlie  Aus- 
trasian  ]\Iayor  of  the  Palace,  llie  grandson  of  Dagobert's  coun- 
cillor, and  after  a  hard  struggle  the  Neiistrians  were  defeated, 
and  all  three  kingdoms — Austrasia,  Neustria,  and  liurgundy — 
passed  under  the  control  of  Pi|)pin.  At  his  death  his  position 
was  inherited  by  his  son  Charles,  known  later  as  Charles  Martel. 
662.  The  Last  of  the  Merovingians.  How^  c()m])letely  the 
Mayor  of  the  Palace  had  taken  to  himself  the  functions  of  the 
king  is  shown  very  clearly  in  a  eelel)rated  description  which 
Einhard,  a  contemporary  chronicler,  has  given  us  of  the  "do- 
nothing  kings,"  as  they  were  called,  of  the  ^Merovingian  line: 
"Nothing  was  left  to  the  king.     He  had  to  content  himself  with 


268 


ROMAN   TIISTORY 


his  royal  title,  his  fiowinp:  locks,  and  lonp:  hoard.  Seated  in  a 
chair  of  state,  lie  was  \v(.iit  to  display  an  appearance  of  power 
by  receiving  foreign  ambassadors  on  their  arrival,  and  on  their 
departure,  giving  them,  as  if  on  liis  own  authority,  those  answers 
which  he  had  l)een  taught  or  coiniuanded  to  give.  .  .  .  ^\  hen  he 
went  anywhere,  he  travelled  in  a  wagon  drawn  by  a  yoke  of 
oxen,  with  a  rustic  oxherd  for  charioteer.  In  this  nuinner  he 
proceeded  to  the  palace,  and  to  the  public  asseml)lies  of  the 
peoi)le  lield  every  year  for  the  despatch  of  the  business  of  the 
kingdom,  and  lie  returned  home  again  in  tlie  same  sort  of  state. 
.The  administration  of  tiic  kiiii^'doni,  and  every  matter  which  liad 
to  be  undertaken  and  carried  through,  both  at  home  and  abroad, 
was  mana<^ed  by  the  Mayor  of  the  Palace."  Such  a  useless 
office  could  not  continue  indefinitely,  and  with  the  death  of 
Childeric   in   7.")2   the  dynasty  of  tlie  Merovingians  came  to  an 

end. 

563.  Mohammed  and  the  Koran.  It  was  well  for  Europe 
that  the  Fnuiks  were  united  ;ind  were  led  by  a  strong  man. 
()th(Mwise  the  newly  deyeloi)ing  (hrnianic  civilization  might 
have  been  engulfed  by  the  tide  of  Mohammedan  concjuest. 
To  understand  the  rapid  spread  of  ^b)liamme<lanism  we  musi 
glance  at  tlie  conditions  in  Arabia  nearly  two  eenlnries  before 
the  period  wliich  we  have  reached  in  following  the  history  of  the 
Franks.  Mohammed,  th(>  fonnd(>r  of  the  new  faith,  was  born 
in  Mecca  in  .'uO.  In  early  manhood  he  showed  a  religious 
bent,  and  witlidrew  fretinently  to  lonely  Kpots  for  meditation. 
On  one  of  these  occasions,  as  he  sle[)t,  an  angel  seemed  to 
stand  l)efore  him  holding  a  scroll  from  which  he  was  bidden  to 
read  and  on  the  scroll  was  written  what  Mohammed  acceiUed 
as  a  revelation  from  above.  This  was  the  first  of  the  revela- 
tions which  he  received  from  time  to  time  tliereafter,  and  which 
were  put  together  after  his  death  into  the  Koran,  or  sacred  book 
of  the  Moliammedaiis. 

564.  His  Teachings  are  Accepted  in  Arabia.  I\b)hammed 
taught  that  God  is  one,  that  he  is  all-powerful,  and  that  the  indi- 
vidual   must    surrender   liims<'lf   eoinpletely    to    his    will.     The 


KEUKIJAMZATIOX    OF    THE    EMPIRE    IX    THE    WEST 


269 


people  of  Mohammcirs  nativ(>  city,  Mecca,  were  hostile  to  these 
teachings,  bec;nise  her  j)rosperity  was  due  to  the  pilgrimages 
which  the  faithful  made  to  lu>r  idolatrous  shrines,  and  they 
obliged  liini  to  flee  from  the  city,  Imt  the  Arabians  elsewhere 
eagerly  acce|)te(l  his  doctrines.  In  the  end  even  Mecca  was 
obliged  to  yield  to  him,  and  in  630,  or  eight  years  after  liis 
flight  from  the  city,  he  returned  as  its  master.  Ilis  flight  from 
INIecea  in  iV2'2,  or  the  Ilegira  as  it  is  called,  is  the  event  from 
which  the  Mohammedans  reckon  all  dates. 

565.  They  Make  the  Arabs  Resistless  Warriors.  His 
success  over  llie  people  of  INIecea  was  the  beginning  of  the  relig- 
ious and  politicjd  coiKjuest  of  his  native  land,  and  before  his 
death  Mohammed  began  to  cast  his  eyes  even  beyond  the  limits 
of  Arabia.  The  religion  which  he  taught  was  well  adapted  to 
make  brave  warriors  of  its  adherents.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
believer  to  spread  the  new  faitli,  by  tlie  sword  if  need  be.  x\ll 
things,  even  the  length  of  a  man's  life,  are  ortlained  of  God. 
(^onse(piently  one  cannot  die  until  the  ajipointed  time  has  come, 
and,  therefore,  is  as  safe  on  the  field  of  battle  as  in  his  own  home, 
and  death  in  battle  with  infidels  ensures  the  believer  admission  to 
|)ara(lise.  We  can  get  some  notion  of  th("  sort  of  warriors  which 
such  teachings  mniured  by  calling  to  mind  the  fierce  courage 
with  w  Inch  the  .\rabs  of  the  Soudan,  in  our  own  day,  armed  only 
with  primitive  wea|)ons,  have  rushed  to  certain  death  against 
the  (Jatling  guns  and  rei)eating  rifles  of  disciplined  European 
trooj)s. 

566.  Conquests  of  the  Mohammedans.  It  was  an  army 
made  up  of  men  like  these  which  went  forth  from  Arabia  to  con- 
quer the  world.  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  were  wrested  from 
the  Roman  empire,  and  Persia  was  subdued.  Then  the  tide 
of  conciuest  moved  westward.  Egypt  was  taken,  and  the  prov- 
ince of  Africa  which  Justinian  had  regained  from  the  Van- 
dals was  lost  forever  to  the  empire.  Arab  hordes  i)uslied  along 
the  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  in  711  crossed  the  Strait  of 
Gibraltar  into  Spain,  and  one  after  another  the  great  cities  of 
Si>ain,  Seville,  Cordova,  Valentiii,  and  Saragossa  fell  into  their 


270 


ROMAN    IIISTOKY 


l{i:oHGANJZATlON    OF   THE    EMl'lKK   IV   THE    WEST 


271 


liaiids,  until  the  entin    \'isio(»thic  kin(r(l(,ii^  except  tlie  moun- 
tainoiLs  region  in  tlie  nortli,  liad  l)eeii  ocenjMc*!  by  tlieni. 
567.  The  Battle  of  Poictiers,  or  Tours,  A.  D.  732.     In 

732,  under  llieir  great  leader  Alxleialinian,  seventy  thousand  or 
more  Saraetn>  *  rossed  the  w  t  ^tcrn  Pyieiiers  into  (iaul.  Charles, 
tlie  son  of  Pij)]>in,  felt  the  gravity  of  the  danger  which  threatcicd 
Ills  country,  and  hn.ught  the  whole  force  of  the  Franks  into  the 
field  to  drive  hack  the  invader.  TUv  two  forces  met  on  the  field 
of  Poictiers  All  day  long  the  l)attle  raged.  The  Saracen 
cavalry  charged  the  eneniy  again  and  again,  l)ut  tliey  could  not 
break  through  the  solid  lines  oT  the  Franks,  and  when  darkness 
came  on  tiny  withdrew  from  the  held,  and  returned  across  the 
Fyrenees,  never  to  enter  France  again.  By  this  vietorv  Charles 
^lartel  ('I'lie  Hanniier'),  as  he  was  henceforth  called,  saved 
Europe  for  Aryan  cixilization  and  for  Christianity.  Had  lie 
l»een  defeated,  (ianl  would  |»rohrd)ly  have  fallen  into  the  hands 
ol  the  ^Iohaninie«laii-,  ail  txniial  Europe  would  have  been 
threatened  with  a  like  fate,  and  the  whole  course  of  civilization 
wouitl  probably  have  Ijcen  changed. 

568.  Pippin,  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  Becomes  King.     M 

his  death  Charles  Martel  di\ided  his  powi  is  l)etween  his  sons 
Fij»|iin  and  ('arioniaii.  The  insurre<tions  which  hillowed  his 
death  were  put  down  by  the  two  new  Mayors  of  the  Palace  and 
in  747  unity  wa.>  again  secured  Ijy  the  abdication  of  Carlonian, 
wild  withdrew  into  religious  seclusion.  Pippin,  who  now  ruled 
alone,  felt  himself  stnnig  er'"^"'!!  to  <lepose  tlie  king  Childeric, 
and  a  rnes.sage  wa>  >ent  to  Koine  to  secure  tiie  poi)e's  appi-oval  of 
his  course.  The  ])oi)e  re})lied:  *Tt  is  l)etter  tliat  the  man  who 
has  the  real  [)ower  should  also  lunc  the  title  of  king,  rather 
tlian  tlie  man  who  has  the  mere  title  and  no  real  power." 

569.  He  Comes  to  the  Assistance  of  the  Pope.  The  new 
king  soon  had  an  opi)ortunity  to  show  his  gratitude  for  tliis 
friendly  decision  from  Rome.  We  have  already  noticed  that 
the  Loml)ards  were  .\ria!i>  and  the  least  <-onsiderate  toward  the 
liomaiis  of  any  of  the  (Mrmanic  invaders.  Tlie\-  had  long 
harassed  the  pope  bv  eucroacliing  u|»on  hi^  tcrrilorx.      Xo  help 


was  to  be  had  from  Constantino])le,  l)ecause  the  pope  and  the 
emj)eror  had  (luarreled  over  certain  ecclesiastical  matters,  and 
the  ])ope  had  g(>ne  to  the  point  of  exconnnunicating  the  emperor. 
In  tliis  emcrgeiKy^  the  [)o|)e  api)ealed  for  hclj)  \o  his  CaUiolic 
cham})ion  in  the  West,  the  king  of  the  Franks.  Pippin  re- 
sponded readily,  lie  entered  Italy,  forced  llie  king  of  the  Lom- 
bards to  submit  to  him,  took  from  him  a  strip  of  territory  about 
Ravenna,  and  Invstowed  it 
upon  the  j)apacy.  This 
addition  of  territory  made 
the  po|)e  an  im])()rtant  po- 
litical ruler,  and  the  sig- 
nificance of  his  tem|)ora] 
|>ower  may  be  thought  of 
as  dating  from  this  gift 
made  l>y  Pippin. 

570.  The  Appearance 
and  Dress  of  Charle- 
magne. It  is  fortunate 
for  us  that  we  have  ;i  biog- 
raphy of  Pippin's  son  and 
succcssoi-  Charlemagne,  or 
Charles  the  (ireat, from  the 
hand  of  a  con  tern  porn  rv. 
A  1  t  li  ough  this  sketch, 
which  is  often  attributed 
to  his  scci-clarv  faiihard,  is  i)robablv  too  fiiendlv  an  account  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  deeds,  it  gives  us  some  in\aluable  glimpses 
of  the  life  of  the  times.  This  is  the  picture  which  Einhard  gives 
us  of  tlie  new  king:  *'He  was  stout  and  vigorous,  of  good 
stature,  although  his  neck  was  short  and  thick.  .  .  .  His  step 
was  firm  and  the  whole  carriage  of  his  body  was  manly.  He 
won^  the  dress  of  liis  native  country,  that  is,  the  Prankish;  next 
liis  })ody,  a  linen  shirt  and  linen  drawers;  then  a  tunic  with  a 
silk(«n  border  and  stockings.  He  bound  his  legs  with  garters  and 
wore  shoes  on  his  feet.  .  .  .  He  wore  a  blue  cloak,  and  was 


CM  AUI.KMVONK 


272 


ROMAX  nisTcmv 


always  girt  with  liis  swore 


1    [\iv  liill  and  Vh'U  being  of  gold  and 


silver 


m 


571.  He  is  Crowned  King  of  the  Lombards  in  A.  D.  774 


He  has  won  a  \ 


lace  in  liistorv  as  a  warrior,  a  patron  of  letter 


statesman,  an( 
look  at  his  career 


1  a  champion  of  the  church,  and  we  may 


l>riefly 


to  ad'vantage  from  these  four  points  of  vie\x 


His  long  reign  o 


f  fort\-six  rears,  from  A.  T).  / 


wa 


rs  but  liis  most  important  campaitrns  were 


68  to  814,  is  full  of 
in  Italy,  Germany, 


Hid  Spain.     He  had  been  on 


the  throne  l)Ut  five  years 


when  tl 


le 


1>*>1 


)e  CM 


lied  ui 


)on  Inm  to  prcven 


t  the  Lombard  king  from  sci/m 


(f 


the  cities  which  Pii)i)in  had  given  to  the  pajnic 
■lied  into  Ttalv,  over 


promptly  marc 
had  himself  crowiiec 


Charlemagne 
threw  the  Lombard  ruler,  and 


1  kiny:  .)f  the  Lombards.     Thus  the  kingdom 


o 


f  the  LcMiibards  passed  away,  a 


had  tl 


lose  o 


f  the  ( )stro<!:oths 


the  Visigoths,  aiK 


(I  tile  Vandals. 


Conquest    of    Saxony,    A.    D.    772-803.    Charle- 


572. 

ma^nie's  campaigns  in  (icrm;in\ 


ail 


linst  the  Saxons  were  not 


br(»uiiht  to  a  success 


ful 


conclusion  wi 


Ih 


so  much  e:is( 


Th 


esc 


people  who  dwelt  u|)on 


much  alfcctci 


Ibvtl 


ic  civi 


liis  northciislcrn  frontier  liad  not  been 
lization  of  thi>  South,  and  wen'  ju-obably 


in 


a  state  of  culture  no 


t  much  farther  advancec 


1  than  that  of  tlic 


( 

tl 


icrmans 


when  the  llomans  W( 


're  first  broug 


lit  int 


o  con 


tact  with 


lem,  i 


un 


like  tl 


lose  o 


aiK 


)  sooniM" 


th 


rouir 


md  diarlcmagne's  campaigns  in  their  country  were  not 

f  Caesar  in  Ciaul.     Th(W  rarely  met  him  in  open 

had  one  district  been  brought  into  siibjec- 

tlier.     And,  just  as  had  been 

hen  quiet  seemed  to  prevail 

f  a  popular  leader,  like 


I   IK 


l)atll»  , 

tion  than  trouble^  broke  out  in  aiio 

the 


case  in  Caesar'.^  campaigns, 


w 


liout  the  land   tlie  appearance  o 


the  Saxon  lit 


hero  Wi<lukin<l,  woiiM  set   the  country  ablaze  with 

lietore  the  land  was  thoroughly 


patriotic  (ire.     It  was  thirty  year 


1 


)aci 


fied. 


573.  Annexation  of  Bavaria  in  A.  D.  787.     Charlemagne's 

(iermanv,  Bavaria,  was  secured 


other  territorial  accjuisition  in 


wi 


til  less  difhculty.     By  a  mere  show  of  force  the  Bavarians 

Id-  their  duke  was  ol)liged  to  retire  into  a 


were  induced  to  yie 


nnniasfer\',  am 


I  CharlematTie  took  the  government  into  his  own 


(  '  1 1 A 1 ;  i:  K  .\ [  A  ( J  X  F/S  ''  K . u-(iv4-v(-fl      ?  ^ 

KM  I M  UK  y'uua         '  D.  umaVkV  L~)  ^     ,c  ' 


272 


uoMW  insToin 


uhv.ys  ^'irt  will,  his  swonl,  tl,r  liill  ..M  l.-lt  l,.-il.t.'  of  IX'M  .-.n.l 

'  571.  He  is  Crowned  King  of  the  Lombards  in  A.  D.  774. 

Uv  has  xv.>n  a  pla.v  hi  history  as  a  ^varrior,  a  paln.n  cf  Icltrrs  a 
statesi.uui,  a.ul  a  chanipion  of  llir  .hunh,  and  w.  inay  hnrfly 
look  at  his  canrr  to  advantaov  fro.n  thcsr  four  i>onits  ot  vk>w 
His  loiiK  ivi^n  o|-  tortv-six  y.nns,  from  A.  T>.  TCS  to  SI  1,  is  tull  ol 
wars,  hut  his  nio.t  iininn-taut  can.i.ai-ns  wrn-  in  Italy,  Gcnnany, 
and  Spain.  Uv  ha.l  hern  on  thr  thronr  hut  iivr  years  when  tl.c 
j^^^j,^.  ,..,ll,,l  „,„„  l,i,n  to  invvcnl  ih.'  Lonihard  kin^-  Imni  MM/.n.- 
thr  cities  xvlii<h  I'iiMun  had  --ivcn  to  tli(^  papacy.  (1iarleniao-nc 
,„  ,lv  marched  into  Italy,  overlhrew  the  [.ond.ard  ruler,  and 
h,<l  hinisc'lf  croune.1  kin-  of  the  Lo.uhards.  Tluis  the  kin-.loni 
,,f  tlu^  Lonihards  passed  away,  a>  had  thoM-  of  the  (  )>troooihs, 
the  Visi<.joths,  an<l  the  Vandals. 

572.  Conquest    of    Saxony,    A.    D.    772-803.     Tharle- 

rna-nr\  cauipai-ns  in  (iern.anv  a^rainsl  th.«  Saxons  were  not 
l,nm--lit  to  a  suc<■e^^ful  conchi>ion  with  so  nni<h  ease.  The>r 
,„.o|.le  who  dwelt  upon  his  northeastern  frontier  had  not  Ikvu 
,„„ch  aih'ct.'d  l.v  th.'  civili'/alion  of  the  South,  and  W(«re  prohaMy 
i„  n  stale  of  culture  lu.l  nuich  farllu-r  advancc.l  than  that  of  die 
(h-nnans  when  the  Honians  were  firs!  hrouo-JU  int.>  c(mlacl  with 
th.-n,  and  (liarlen.a-n.vs  ...nipai-n..  in  their  country  were  not 
„„like  those  of  (  ;..-^ar  in  (hinl.  Thvy  rarely  Uict  luni  m  ol>en 
h,,t,l,.,  an.l  no  s(»oner  had  «me  distri<t  heeii  l.rouoht  into  Mihjec- 
tion  than  Ironhle  hroke  out  in  another.  And,  just  as  liad  heen 
the  ease  in  Caesar's  caini.aio-ns,  when  (|niet  seemed  to  prevail 
thnmirhout  the  land  the  appcaran.v  of  a  popular  lea.ler,  like 
the  Saxon  h.-ro  \Vidukin<h  would  set  ih.'  ..mntry  ahla/e  with 
,,.,(,iotic  lire.      U  v.a.  thirty  year>  h.-fore  the  laud  wa>  llu.rouohly 

pacified. 

573.  Annexation  of  Bavaria  in  A.  D.  787.  diarlemagne  s 
other  terril..rial  acjuiMtinii  in  (lermany,  liavaria,  was  secured 
with  less  din-cultv.  liy  a  mere  show  of  h)rce  the  r.avanan.s 
were  induced  l<.  yield;  their  duke  was  ohli.u'ed  to  retire  into  a 
n.onaslerv,  and  ( 'harlema-ne  took  the  o-overnment  inl<.  his  own 


I 


1 


V- 


Cv  -  '-"J 


r?.. 


5  I!i'itt;iii  \  ;  lviri_;.: 


i 


'~1^ 


■B_ 


,-    V 


\\ 


KKOHCAMZA TION    ol-     IIIK    KMPIRE   IN   THE    WEST  273 

hands.  The  addition  of  l^avaria  to  his  n^ahn  was  very  important 
hccause  it  sc'curcd  him  a  (hrcct  Hnc  of  communication  through 
Iiis  domains  tVojii  Saxony  in  the  North  to  Italy  in  the  South,  and 
gave  him  a  better  t'ronti(>r  defense  against  the  Shns  on  liis  eastern 

574.  Conquest  of  Northern  Spain,  A.  D.  778  -  812.     While 

('harl(Mnagne  was  engaged  in  the  war  with  Saxony,  aml)assadors 

came  to  him  from  some  of  the  Saracen  chiefs  in  northern  Spain 

for  the  whoh'  peninsula  was  now  held  by  the  Mohannne(hins — 
offering  to  accept  him  as  tlieir  oyerlord.  He  acceptc^l  tlie  offer, 
crossed  th<'  IVr(Mie(\s,  and  received  the  submission  of  Barcelona 
and  (ierona.  On  the  way  back  his  forces  suffered  a  disastrous 
defeat  in  the  mountains  at  the  hands  of  the  Has(|ues.  In  this 
battle,  at  Roncesvalles,  fell  Uoland,  count  of  Brittany,  to  whose 
name  wjindering  im'nstrcls  attached  the  story  of  warlike  deeds 
and  chivalrous  advvMitnres  which  three  centuries  later  was  set 
down  in  wi-iting  as  the  (Utansott  dr  (irsic  dr  Rohiml  one  of  the 
fines!  of  the  epic  jXKMns  of  the  Middle  Ages.  In  s|)ite  of  this 
disaster,  this  campaign  and  those  which  followed  it  secured  for 
the  Franks,  and,  therefore,  for  ("hristendom,  a  stri|)  in  northern 
Spain  as  far  south  as  Barcelona,  and  was  the  first  step  toward 
the  exj)ulsion  of  the  Mohammedans  from  Si)ain,  which  was 
finally  accomj)lished  in  WWl. 

575.  Charlemagne  as  the  Patron  of  Letters.  It  would 
be  wrong,  however,  to  think  of  (1iarl(Mnagne,  as  simply  a  warrior. 
He  took  a  very  lively  intenvst  also  in  letters  and  art.  He  called 
to  his  court  some  of  tlie  most  distinguished  scholars  of  his 
time,  KinlKinl  his  secretjiry,  Alcuin  the  Anglo-Saxon,  and  Paulus 
Diaconus  the  Lombard.  Tlianks  to  his  influence,  the  monas- 
teries took  up  again  the  practice  of  making  coj)ies  of  the  manu- 
scripts of  the  Latin  classics  which  they  |)ossesse(l,  and  in  conse- 
quence many  works  of  anti(|uity  were  preserved  which  otherwise 
would  i)robal)ly  have  perished.  Just  as  our  New  England 
ancestors  established  colleges  primarily  for  the  proper  training 
of  ministers  of  ihe  gospel,  so  diarlemagne's  first  purpose  in  the 


274 


i;(»M\\    ill  STORY 


encouraj^t'iiieiit  whiiii  lie  i::i\r  lo  Icariiiii*^  was  the  ((lucatluii  of 

576.  His  Famous  Letter  on  Education.  In  a  famous 
letter  written  In  him  on  this  suhjeet  he  >avs:  "In  reciMit  years 
when  letters  have  been  written  to  us  from  various  monasteries 
to  inform  us  that  the  brethren  \vl»o  dweh  there  were  olicrini,^  uj) 
in  our  liehalf  holy  and  |)ious  prayers,  we  noted  in  most  of  tliese 
letters  correct  tiiono;lits  hut  uncouth  e\i)ressions.  .  .  .  There- 
fore, we  exhort  vou  not  onlv  not  to  ne*ilecl  the  studv  t»f  letters, 
luit  also  with  most  humhle  min<l,  pleasinn:  t(»  (Jod,  to  pursue  it 
earnesth',  in  (»rder  tlial  you  may  he  ahle  more  easily  an<l  more 
eorrecth  t<>  j>enetrate  tlie  mysteries  of  the  divine  Serij>tures.  .  .  . 
Be  it  known,  therefore,  to  ye'jii-  Devotion  pleasin^i;  to  ( iod,  that 
we,  toj^ether  with  our  faithful,  liave  considered  it  to  he  expedient 
tliat  the  bishopries  and  monasteries  intrusted  hy  the  favor  of 
(^hrist  to  our  ^oNcrnment,  in  addition  t<>  the  ruh-  «)f  monastic 
life  and  the  intercourse  of  lioly  religion,  oujji;ht  to  he  zeahuis  ;dso 
in  the  culture  of  letters,  lea<hin^  those  who  hy  the  ^nft  of  (iod 
are  able  to  learn,  accordin;^  to  tlie  capacity  '  !  "ach  individual." 

577.  How  He  Organized  the  Government.  Charlema*^ne's 
stalesmanshii*  showed  itself  clearlv  in  liis  (»r!''anization  of  the 
administrati\  -l<"m  and  in  his  foreign  policy.  In  Saxony, 
for  instance,  he  allowed  the  })eoplc  to  retain  their  customary 
law,  which  had  l>een  handed  down  by  word  of  mouth.  In  fact 
he  had  'it  collecled  and  >et  down  in  writuij^.  At  the  same  time 
capitularies,  or  royal  oiders,  were  issue<l,  applicable  to  all  parts 
of  tlie  realm,  and  the  authority  (tf  the  kin»(  in  <'ach  district  was 
represented  l)y  a  c(Minl  ov  other  ofhcial,  who  in  return  for  this 
^rant  f)f  autliorily,  and  foi-  the  prixijei-'es  and  emoluments  w  Inch 
he  received,  acknow  Icdi^ed  hiins<'lf  to  be  the  vassal  (»f  the  kin*^. 
This  royal  of[i<-ial  in  turn  chos*'  subordinates  on  th<'  same  l)asis, 
who  became  his  vassals,  and  in  this  way  the  feudal  system  came 
into  beint^. 

578.  His  Alliance  with  the  Church.  The  most  charac- 
teristic |)art  of  liis  domestic  policy  was  the  close  alliance  which 
he  fostered  Ix'twcim  the  rhuich  and  the  stale.     The  Saxons,  for 


HF.oRtJAMZATlOX    OF    THE    F.MPIRE   IK   TTTE    WE.ST  275 

instance,  were  heathen,  and  (1iarlema«,nie's  first  thought  was  to 
convert  them  to  Christianity,  and  a  laro;!^  part  of  lu's  capitularies 
were  intended  to  protect  the  church,  and  to  i)romole  its  dignity 
and  influence.  In  this  way  tlie  clergy  and  the  secular  officials 
worked  harmoniously  to  further  tlieir  common  interests. 

579.  He  is  Crowned  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  This  side 
of  his  policy  comes  out  in  a  more  striking  way  in  his  direct  rela- 
tions with  the  j)apacy.  We  have  already  noticed  tliat  in  774  he 
came  to  the  rescue  of  the  pope  in  his  struggle  with  the  Lombards. 


BT.   PETEIi's  AT  HOME 

Again,  in  the  year  S(H),  he  was  called  to  Rome  to  compose  a 
diflieulty  beJwven  Pope  Leo  III  and  his  opponents.  The  matter 
was  satisfactorily  arranged,  and  in  celebration  of  its  settlement 
a  service  was  held  in  St  Peter\s  on  (  hristmas  Day.  What 
happened  on  this  occasion  we  learn  from  Einhard's  narrative. 
"On  the  most  holy  day  of  tlie  birth  of  our  Lord,  the  king  went 
to  mass  at  St.  Peter's,  and  as  he  knelt  in  i)rayer  before  the  altar, 
Pope  Leo  set  a  crown  upon  his  head,  while  ajl  the  Roman  popu- 
lace cried  aloud,  'Long  life  and  victory  to  the  nughty  Charles 


271 


KoMW     lllsr(>K\ 


riu-ourauciiinit   which  hr  liasr  Im  Icaniiiii''  was  ihr  r(hl<"ilit»li  of 
{\\v  rlcrj^'V. 

576.  His  Famous  Letter  on  Education.  In  a  I'ainous 
h'ltrr  writlcn  hv  him  (»n  ihis  siihjcri  In-  n,i\>:  **Iii  r(«(Mil  vcar.s 
when  letters  have  heeii  \\rilh*ii  ti»  us  from  \aiioii>  moiiasleries 
to  inform  us  that  the  hretlu-eu  who  dweU  there  wm-  olh-riu^'  u|) 
in  our  iM-liah"  holy  aud  j>ious  prayers,  we  noted  in  most  of  th.ese 
Idlers  eoireet  ihouuhls  iiul  uueoiilh  e\|»ressions.  .  .  .  There- 
fore, we  exhoii  \ou  not  <inly  not  !«•  neiileet  the  >ln<ly  of  h-lfers, 
hui  al>o  with  most  humhie  tnind,  |»leasinii'  to  (iod,  lo  jun-sur  it 
earnesth,  in  order  ihal  \oii  may  he  ahle  nittrc  easily  and  m(»re 
eorre<ll\-  to  |M-nelrate  the  myslei-ics  of  the  di\  ine  S<  riptures.  .  .  . 
lie  it  known,  llnirfore,  Iti  your  l>e\oli<(n  picasin;:'  to  ^kmI,  thai 
we,  tei^'ether  with  our  faithful,  have  ( <tnsi<h're«l  it  to  he  «-\pe(lient 
that  the  hishopi'ies  and  nionaslrries  intru>teil  \t\  the  fa\or  of 
('hi'i>t  lo  our  uoxerumenl.  in  addition  l<»  tin-  rule  of  monastic 
life  and  the  inlei'coursc  (if  holy  rcli;^ion,  <tii^hl  to  he  /caloirs  also 
in  ihc  cullure  of  Idlers,  leachinti'  llntsr  who  l>y  the  liift  of  ( Jod 
are  alilc  to  Icaiii,  ac<ordin}^"  to  the  capa<I'y  "!  •■a«h  indi\  idiial." 

577.  How  He  Organized  the  Government.  <'harlema^nie's 
stale.siiuiiiship  showed  ilscif  clearly  in  his  oi-vani/alioii  of  the 
a<hninislrali\  c  -x  >.tcm  and  in  his  forciuii  policy.  In  Saxony, 
h»i'  iustatpc,  he  allowed  the  jH'oph'  l«»  i-etam  llieir  customary 
law,  which  had  heeii  lianded  detwii  hy  word  (tf  month.  In  fact 
In-  had  'it  collecleii  and  scl  down  ni  wrillni!:.  At  the  same  lime 
capitularies,  <'r  ro\al  orders,  W(  re  issued,  a|tplical>le  to  all  jtarts 
(if  the  reahu,  and  the  authority  of  the  k'wvj:  in  <'aeh  district  was 
reprcscntctl  \}\  a  count  or  other  odicial,  who  in  return  for  this 
^^raiil  of  aulluu-ity,  and  h»r  the  pri\ilci'<'s  atid  emolunicnls  which 
lie  re«-ei\t'il,  ackiiow  led^-cd  himself  to  he  the  \ass.d  of  th<'  kin^^ 
^I'his  ro\a!  oliicial  in  liu'u  choc  -uhorilinates  on  Hie  same  hasis, 
\\\u*  hecame  his  \assals,  and  in  this  way  the  h-udal  system  came 
into  l)ein^^ 

578.  His  Alliance  with  the  Church.  The  most  charac- 
teristic pari  of  his  domestic  poli<y'  was  the  eluse  alhamc  which 
he  h>^lcred  lielwceii  the  rhur<h  an«l  the  slate.     TIk*  Saxons,  for 


lii.oi.c, wi/Aiiox  ,,|.-   [.,,K  i.Mi'ih'i:  i\  Tin:  wist 


instance,  were  heathen,  and  ('l!arleina.<!:ne's  first  tliou»,dit  was  to 
convert  them  to  Christianity,  an.l  a  larov  part  of  his  capitularies 
were  inlended  |(,  j)rolecl  the  church,  and  to  promote  its  di*r„ity 
and  inlluence.  In  this  way  th(>  clerny  and  the  secular  odieials 
worked  harmoniously  to  further  their  coimnon  interests. 

579.  He  is  Crowned  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  This  side 
of  liis  policy  comes  out  in  a  more  slrikino;  way  in  his  direct  rela- 
tions with  the  papacy.  We  have  already  noticed  that  in  77d  he 
eame  to  the  rescue  of  the  poi)e  in  his  slruoole  with  the  Lomhards. 


br.   I'KTI.U'-   \i    KOME 


A<rain,  in  the  year  SOO.  he  was  (alle.l  to  I!ome  to  (ninpose  a 
didi.ultyheiween  IN.pc  Leo  I II  and  his  opp„n.«nts.  The  matter 
was  satisfaclcuily  arran-v.l,  and  in  (vlehration  of  its  settlement 
a  service  was  held  in  Si  PcMcr's  .„,  (duistmas  Dav.  What 
J>''PP<'"»'<1  '"»  iliis  oeeasion  we  learn  from  Kinhard's  iiarrativc. 
"Ou  the  most  holy  day  of  the  hird,  of  our  Lord,  the  kin^'  went 
to  mass  at  St.  INlcr's,  an<l  as  he  knell  in  ju-ayer  l)dore  the  altar, 
P<M»<'  Leo  set  a  crown  upon  his  head,  w  hile  all  the  Uoman  popu- 
laee  cried  alou.l,  'Lou-'  lih-  and  victory  to  die  imVhtv  Charles 


270 


ROMAX    FirSTORY 


thej^'ivat  aiKl  j)a(ific  HniiHior  of  iIk'  Koinans,  (towiumI  l)y  dod!' 
AfUT  lie  had  Ikmmi  thus  acchiiiiicd,  llic  popr  (Hd  hoinatrc  to  him, 
iis  liad  Ix'cn  the  (ii^loiii  widi  the  t'arlv  rulers,  and  henceforth  he 
(h'opj)ed  the  title  of  Patrician,  and  was  called  Emperor  ant! 
Augustus."  With  this  act,  tlu'  empire  in  the  West,  known  later 
iis  tlie  Iloh    Roman  Empire,  was  reestid)lislied. 

680.  Summary  Account  of  the  Reorganization  of  the 
Empire  in  the  West,  A.  D.  500-  800.  As  we  have  followed 
the  ct)ursc  of  events  outlined  in  this  chapter  it  is  clear  that  the 
eardiuid  ]»oints  in  the  jteriod  from  'Hieodoric  to  ('harlema<.i:ne 
were  the  attempts  of  tlie  em[)eror  at  ('onstatitin()|)le  to  reestahlish 
his  authority  in  western  Europ<',  the  readjustment  of  the  (lerman 
kiu^^tltiins,  their  struj^ti'le  with  Mohaunuedanisju,  thi'  develop- 
iiicnt  of  civilization  and  the  sj)read  of  orthoclox  (liristiauity,  and 
the  reorj^auization  of  the  West  under  a  sin^de  ij^overnment.  For 
a  time  it  seemed  as  if  Justinian,  the  Eastern  emperor  who  is 
famous  foi-  his  codification  of  Roman  law,  might  regain  the  West. 
In  fact,  he  recovered  Italy,  uoi'thei-n  Africa,  and  southern  Spain, 
hut  the  Eomhards  droxc  the  garrisons  of  his  successors  out  of 
Italy,  and  a  wa\c  of  Alohannnedan  eonipiest  swept  over  Africa 
and  Spain,  and  would  prol)al>ly  have  engulfed  western  Europe, 
had  it  not  heeii  for  the  defeat  of  the  Mohanunedans  at  Roictiers 
by  riiarles  Martel.  Charles  Martel  was  Mayor  of  the  Palace 
for  the  Franks,  and  thiN  people,  hegiiuiing  its  eoiKpiests  under 
Clovis,  liad  siihducd  all  of  western  Eiu'ojU'  e\ce})t  Spain,  which 
was  lield  l)y  tlie  Mohammedans,  and  Britain,  wliich  was  occupied 
by  the  Anglo-Saxons.  Pij)pi!i,  the  son  of  (diaries  Martel,  was 
made  king  of  the  Frard^s,  and  transmitted  the  sci^ptre  to  (liarle- 
inajtne,  wlio  con(|Uered  Italy,  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  northern 
Spain,  and  thus  became  master  of  western  Europe.  He  pro- 
moted learning,  supporte(l  the  Church,  and  was  crowned  em|>eror 
of  the  Romans  by  tlu'  l*ope. 


i 


rilRONOLOGICAT.  LIST  OF  IMPorrPAXT  EVENTS* 

THE   RKCAL   PEIMOD 

753-509  H.  c. 

(Sec  Chap.  Ill) 


B.  C. 

753 
753-509 


509 

'\P  508 

/498 

196 

y  401 

493 

471 
? 

462 

451-449 

449 

447 
445 
445-367 


The  Founding  of  Rome.f 

The     Kings:     Itomulus,     Xiiinjt,     Tullus     Hoslilius, 

Aliens     M;iJt  ins,     'rnr(|iiiiiius     Priscus,     Scrxius 

Tiilliiis,  'ra]-(|iiiiiiiis  Sujxrbub 

THE   PEPrBLIC 
509-26  1  B.  c. 

The  cnrifiurs-f  oj  ff"J>/  (Chiip,  IV) 

The     s/ni(/(f/f     Inhrat,     //,,      pal r/(  idfis     and     plrhruifls 
(ClKip.  V) 

The  consulship  established 

Ticaty  witli  Carthage 

Tlic  flictaforsliip  cstahlislifcl 

The  Latins  defeated  at  Pake  Pe^ilins 

Tlie  ])l(4)eians  secede  to  the  Sacred  Monnt 

The  tribunate  of  the  plebs  established 

Treaty  with  tlie  Paljjis 

The  concilium  plebis  established 

The  trihnnes  iMei-eas(>d  to  ten 

Bill  proposed  })y  Teivntilins  to  ])nl>lish  tlie  laws 

The  decemvirate  and  the  twelve  tables 

The  plebeians  secede  tD  the  Sacred  .Mount 

The  X'alerio-IIoratian  laws 

The  comitia  tribiita  ost^ihlished 

The  C'anuleian  marriage  law 

Stnijcrgle  forth(>  consulship:  the  eonsuh'-r  tiihunate 


443  '^or  435)       The  censorship  established 

*  The  dates  and  evonts  in  bold  facc^  type  should  ho  ineinori/.ed. 

t  The  (httes  of   the  rej^al  i)enod  and  of   the  early  repuhli;-    are   very 
uncertain. 

277 


278 

421 


B.  C. 


405-396 
382 

367 

366 


358 

35G 

3-18 

343-1 

340-338 

339 

338 

326 

326-304 

312-308 

312 

311 

Al.(.ut   300 

2!»N  2U() 

205 

287 

281-272 

2S0 

27! » 

275 

268 


264-241 


20: 1 
260 


ROMAN    insroRY 

Military  qii.-uslors  chosen 

PI.-Im  iaiis  ( ligil)lc  to  first  ciiriilc  ofTicc,  the  qiiavstor- 

shi{) 
War  with  Veii 
Rome  taken  by  the  Gauls 
The  Licinian  laws 
A  ph'lx  i:tn  in;i(lc  consul 
Practorship  cstnlilishcd 
Curiilc  ac(Uh'slii|)  (  stablislicd 

Rise  of  th<' nol'ihtns 

Lcaj^ucwith  tlic  Lai  ins  and  Ilcrnica'ns  renewed 

A  ph'beian  made  (hctator 

Treaty  with  (  arthage 

First  Saninite  w;ir,  ^<)-e;ilh(l 

Latin  War,  and  di.^solution  of  tlie  Latin  h-a«ne 

Tlie  Pul)liHan  law^ 

A  plelxian  made  jmu-tor 

Antinm  founded,  lirst  maritime  naony 

The  proconsulship  estabUshed 

Second  Sanmite  war  ^ 

ll(Hnan  aiiii\  (  ;iptui<(l  :it  the  (  audine  Pass 

liefoitii-  of    Appius  Chiudiu-  C;!.  eu> 

The  Via  Appia  and  the  Aqua  Appia  built 

First  (hi<»viri  navahs  appointed 

Tlie  Ovinia  11  law 

Third  Sanmite  war 

Batth-of  Sentinum 

The  Hortensian  law 

War  with  Tarentum  and  Pyrrhus 
Battle  of  IIerael<  .1 
Battle  c'f  AMuhim 

P)anlr  of  Bent  v<ntum 

Col(»nies  plant <-d  in  H-uthern  Italy 

Silver  coinaixe  int  i-o(luc<  d 

Tin:  i:kim  I'.Lic 

2til  d:-;o  1^  '  ■ 

The  conf/ursf  of  fhr    }f ft! >hrrn uct fi    Lan'ls  (('\\-a\).  Vl) 
(,)>.  -n  lio'iir  (Chap.  \MI) 

First  Punic  war 

Treaty  witli  Hiero 
Battle  of  Mvlae 


B.  C. 


256 

249 
247 
241 

211  (?) 
.    240 

239 

23S 

23N-222 

237 

234 

229-228 

227 

219 

218-201 

218 

217 
216 

2L5 

2L>  205 

212 

211-200 

207 

204 

202 

201 

200- 

About  200 

200-  ]<m; 

107 

197 

196 
195 

192-189 
100 

171-167 

168 

159 


LIST   OF    rMPORTANT   EVENTS  279 

Battle  off  Kcnomus 

Kegulus  l)esi('^(>s  (  artlia^o 

lioman  defeat  at  I  )rej)ana 

Ilamilcar  Barcas  commands  in  Sicily 

Treaty  made 

Sicily  acquired 

Cenluriate  comitia  reformed 

Livius  Andronicus  brings  out  first  Latin  play 

Birth  of  Knnius 

Liome  takes  Sardinia  and  ('(.rsica 

Gallic  wars 

Ilamilcar  develops  Sj)ain 

Birthof  .M.  PorciusCato 

Illyrian  war 

Xumher  of  praetors  increased  to  four 

Ilannihal  takes  Saguntum 

Second  Punic  war 

Hannibal  enters  Italy 

Battles  of  tlie  Ticirjus  and  the  Trebia 

Battle  of  Lake  Trasinieiie 

Battle  of  Cannae 

Alliance  between  Hannibal  and  Philip 

First  Macedonian  war 

Marcellus  takes  Syracuse 

P.  Cornelius  Scipio  subdues  Spain 

Battle  of  liic  Mctaurus 

Scipio  crosses  to  Africa 

Battle  of  Zama 

Ti-eaty  made 

Literary  activity  of  Plautus 

Cisalpine  Gaul  and  Liguria  Romanized 

S(cond  Macedonian  war 

Battle  of  CynoscejjlialaD 

Provinces  of  Hither  and  Farther  Spain  established 

Independence  (.f  Creece  jiroclaimed 

(  ato's  unsuccessful  defence  of  the  Appian  law  against 

extravagance 
War  with  Ant iochus  III 
Battle  of  Magnesia,  f(.llowed  by  treaty 
Third  Macedonian  war 
Battle  of  Pydna 
Death  of  Terence 


280 


155 


B.  C. 


149-146 

149 
146 


150-110 
113-133 

133 


133 

123 

121 

About  118 

113-101 

112-105 

107 

102 

101 

100 

91 
90-88 

90-89 

Ss-s  I 
88 

87-84 

A) .out  81 

83-82 

83-81 

82-79 

78 

82-72 

74-63 


ROMAN     msTORY 

Athrniaii  nmhassatlni     1.  .irliiMtr  i)liilns<.p!iy  s<rit  out 

of   U<ilHl' 

Third  Punic  war 

Fit>1  jxTUKiucnl  court  cstablislKMl 

Dcstructiou  of  Cartliaj^r 

MunUlliUS  r;l{)1  111"  ^  ;in(l  (Irstroys  Colilltl' 

Africa  and  Macedonia  made  provinces 

War  with  Viriathus 
War  with  Xuiuantla 
Province  of  Asia  established 

TFIK    IJKIM   lU.lC 

The    eotniiirsis    <t,tn  i>l(1(<l    f>H     ('"'■■">■    'un!     Pompei/ 
liUrtxiil  (Chap.  \'1I1) 
It  lul 
Jj,,    ,  ,      .hilioti  (it  Ik, UK    ',(  'liaj>.    IX) 

Tribunate  of  Tiberius  Gracchus 
Tribunate  of  Gains  Gracchus 

|)«;ith  («f  (\:\\\\s  (liacflius 

Province  of  Gallia  Narbonensis  established 

Invasion  l>y  1h.-  Ciiiiltri  and  'I'cutoip  - 
War  with  Juj,nirtha 

Marius  ]iia<l<'  consul  and  coniinaiHlcr  in  Nuruidia 
Marius  defeats  Teutoncs  at  Afiua'  Scxtia* 
(;inil)ri  d.frat>  (h-n  thi'  llaUfhn.-  Plain> 
Saturninus  and  (llaucia  1.  ;.d  t  he  democracy 
'rril)U!iate  of  l.ivius  l)ru.-us 
The  Social  war 

Citizensliip  jirani"  <1  I0  the  Italian.- 

!•  iist  Mhliri(hitie  war 

("«KiUti«tn  between  Marius  and  >ul|)ieius 

Sulla  made  commander  in  the  V.:\~\ 

Mariu<  :iiid  Cinna  master.- nf  i;<.me 

Catullus  l)orn 

Overt lirow  of  t lie  Marian  i)arty 

Second  Mitliridalic  war 

Sulla  dictator 

Insurrection  of  Lcpidus 

Scrtoriu>  controls  Sj.ain 

Third  Mitliridal  r 


LIST   OF   IMPORTANT    EVENTS 


281 


H.  C. 


73-71 
70 


67 
66 

05 

(iO  62 
t)3 

(10 
59 

58-50 

5() 
53 


War  with  Spartacus 

Sulla's   laws   repealed   by   the   consuls   Pompey   and 

Crassus 
Vergil  horn 
The  Gabinian  law 
The  Manilian  law 

* 

Horace  l)orn 

Pompcy's  c;im))aigns  in  Asia 

Death  of  Mithridatcs 

Cicei-o  suppresses  the  Cat  ilinarian  con.s|)iracy 

First  triunivirat<'  formed 

Caesar  consul 

Livy  horn 

Caesar's  campaigns  in  Gaul 

Renewal  of  the  triumvirate 

Cra>sus  slain  hy  Partliians 


THi:   KKPCBLIC 
-10  27  li.  <'. 
Thr  (Icdth  slrN<i(/l(s  nj  Uk    /o  public  (Cliap.  X) 

War  between  Caesar  and  the  Pompeians 
Battle  of  Pharsalus 
Battle  of  Thapsus 
Battle  of  Munda 

Caesar  made  dictatoi'  foi-  life 
Caesar  assassinated 
A\'ar  ahout  Mutina 
Second  triumvirate  formed 
Cieeio  mui'dered 
Battles  of  Philippi 
Battle  of  Actium 

THE   KMPIPE 

27  H.r.-  -A.  i>.  08 

The    establish mciif    of    Ihr    Empire    anfl    the    Julian 
Em  jurors  (Chaj).  XI) 

27  Octavianus  receives  proconsular  power  for  ten  years 

and  the  title  of  Augustus. 
27  B.  C.  -  A.  D.  14     Reign  of  Augustus 
17  H.  V.  Publication  of  the  Aeneirl 

35-13   n.  (  .        Literary  activity  of  Horace 


49-45 

48 

46 

45 

14 

44 

44-43 

43 

42 
31 


P..  r. 
About  27 
12-9 

A.  I). 
14-37 

31 
37-41 

41-54 
43 

54-68 
50-60 

64 
65 


68-6g 

69-79 

70 
79-81 

79 


81-96 


78-85 
96-98 
97 

98-117 
101  102 
104  10() 

ii3-"7 


I 17-138 

120-124 

131 

138-161 


KOMW    HISIOKY 

Livy  l)t  <:ins  lii>  liistnry 
Caiiii):ii«n>  in  Ci(  rinaiiv 

Reign  of  Tiberius 

Death  of  Scjaiius 
Reign  of  Caligula 
Reign  of  Claudius 

The  Uoiiiaiis  iii\  m1  •  Hrit;.iii 

Reign  of  Nero 

ConteinfMH-ary   writers:  SeiKca,    P.-rsius,    Petronius, 

I.ue;'!! 
Great  lire  in  ilnin  •  arnl  ('l.ri>t  ians  j).'rs<'cut"(l 

Death  of  Senrea 

THi:   KMPIKK 
A.  i>  (IS  I '.>:■; 

From    \'isp(isiini  to  SciiUnnus  Si  r,  nis  (Cha}).  XfT) 

Reigns  of  Galba,  Otho,  and  VitelUus 
Reign  of  Vespasian 

Ji  rusaleni  taken 
Reign  of  Titus 

Desti-uetinii  (tf  Pompeii  atid  llereiil  in   uni 
Dediealinn  of  the  ( 'olossciuu 
Reign  of  Domitian 

IniiM. riant     writ.  r.<    t^uintihan,    .Marii.l.    Joseplms, 

Plutarch 
Agrieohi\-  .successful  campaigns  in  liritaiu 
Reign  of  Nerva 
Aid  Kiveii  to  free  childn  11 
Reign  of  Trajan 
First  war  in  Dacia 

S(>eun(l  war  in  Dacia;  Dacia  made  a  province 
War  with  i*jirthia 

Armenia,  Mesopotamia,  and  Assyria  made  provinces 
Important     writers:    Juv«-nal,    Tacitus,     Pliny    the 

YouriKfT 
Reign  of  Hadrian 
Reconstruction  of  the  Paiitlu^on 
Comph  lion  (.f  the  edictum  ix-rpeluum 
Reign  of  Antoninus  Pius 
Gaius  compiles  his  Institutes 


LIST   OF    IMPORTANT   EVENTS 


283 


A.  D. 

139 
i6i-i8o 

102-166 

167-168 

167-175 

177 

178-180 

180-192 

193 


Coniplction  of  Hadrian's  Mausoleum 

Reign  of  Marcus  Aurelius 

War  witli  Parthia 

Italy  ravaged  by  the  plague 

First  war  with  the  Marcomanni 

Repression  of  Christianity  by  M.  Aun  lius  begins 

Second  war  with  the  Marcomanni 

Reign  of  Commodus 

Reigns  of  Pertinax  and  Julianus 


THE  EMPIRE 


193-2 1 1 


211 
212 
217 
218 
222 

2:i8 

244 
249 
250 
251 
253 
253 
253 


-217 


21s 
'}>> 

235 

238 

244 

249 

-251 

-253 

260 
-268 


260 

268-270 

270 

270-275 

272 

273 

27.5-276 

276 

276-282 


A.  I).  ni:i  XM 

From  Srpfim ius  Srrrrus  to  Constaniinc  (Cliap.  XIII) 

Reign  of  Septimius  Severus 

Papinian,  t lie  jurist,  flourishes 

Reign  of  Caracalla 

All  freemen  made  Roman  citizens 

Reign  of  Macrinus 

Reign  of  Elagabalus 

Reign  of  Alexander  Severus 

Reign  of  Maximinus 

Reign  of  Gordian 

Reign  of  Philip 

Reign  of  Decius 

Severe  treat  ment  of  the  Cliiistians 

Reign  of  Gallus 

Reign  of  A(  niilianiis 

Reign  of  Valerian  with  his  son  Galliernis 

Reign  of  Gallienus,  for  7  years  as  his  fatlier's  col 

league 
Vjilerian  niiid(^  i)risoner  by  th(>  Persians 
Reign  of  Claudius 
Reign  of  Quint illus 
Reign  of  Aurelian 
Aurelian  takes  Palmyra 

Aurelian  receives  tlie  submission  of  Tetricus 
Reign  of  Tacitus 
Reign  of  Florianus 
Reign  of  Probus 


284 

A     D 

284-305 

3()5-3(H) 

311 

306-321 

312 

324-337 

325 

330 


337-350 
351 

351-361 

355 

361-363 

363~3(>1 

364-375 

361-37S 

375 

376 

378 

379 

383 

392-394 

394 

395 

402 

406 
410 


ROMAN    HISTORY 

Roign  of  Tarns 
Reign  of  Diocletian 

l)ir.ci('tiaM  and  Maxiiriiaii  rule  as  AuRllsti 

Constant  ins  and  ( lalcrius  colleagues 

Galerius's  edict  of  toleration 

Civil  wars  hetwceii  aspirants  for  tlie  throne 

Battle    at    the    Muhian    Hridj;e,    and    Constantine's 

;ie(e|)tanee  of  ( 'hri>tianity 
Constantine,  sole  emperor 
The  Council  at  Nicaea 
Dedication  of  Constantinople  as  the  imperial  residence 

THE   KMFIIIE 

A.  i>.  •>->7    I7<") 

The   Bnrhiinnn   JiirnsiOn^^  nnd  the    \V(^fcrn    World   in 
(he  Fij/h  (',  nfiiri/  H'\\n]>.  \[\  ) 

Tlie  successors  of  ( 'onstant  ine  quariel 

Const  ant  ius    defeats    his    rivals    and    heconies    sole 

•  •niprror 
IJeij^n  of  Constant  ius 

Julian  associat<d  with  him  in  the  government 
Julian  reij^ns  alone 
Ueign  of  .h>\ian 

Valrntinian  ernpen»r  in  the  Wot 
Valens  emperor  in  the  ivi.-t 
Valentinian  II  {:'7.",   :;<)2i  .uk'  Cratian  (37.')   3S3) 

made  rulers  in  lh<'  \\('>t 
The  Visigoths  cross  the  Danube 
Battle  of  Adrianople 
Theodosius  cmijeror  in  the  Ea>t 
Maximus  (383-3S.S)  suceerd>  ( Irnl  ian 
Eiigenius  emperor  in  tlie  Wot 
Theodosius     defrat.-     iMigenius     and     becomes    sole 

emperor  (394-395) 
The  Empire  divided,  never  to  be  reunited 
Alaric  invades  Italy 

Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Burgundians  invade  Gaul 
Alaric  takes  Rome 


A.  D. 
429 

t  10-401 

443 
449 

451 
455 
476 


486 
493-553 

496 
527-565 

533-534 
553 
568 
590-004 

610-041 
622 
087 
711 

732 
751 
768-814 

774 
772-803 

787 
i     778-S12 
800 


LIST   OF    IMI'OUTANT   EVENTS  285 

The  Visigoths  settle  in  Gaul  and  Spain 

The  Vandals  invade  Africa 

Leo  the  Gn^at,  pope 

The  Burgundians  occupy  south-eastern  Gaul 

The  Saxons  invade  Britain 

Attila  defeated  at  Chalons 

Tlie  Vandals  sack  Rome 

Romulus    Auguslulus,   the   last    emperor   in   Rome, 

abdicates 
Odoacer  called  patrician  of  Italy  by  Eastern  emperor 


Tin:   EMl^IliE 
A.  I).  476  SOO 

Rroi'tjdJiizadon  of  tJic  Empire  in  the  West  (Chap.  XV) 

(>lovis  d*  f(^ats  the  liomans  at  Soissons 

The   Ostrogothic   kingdom   in   Italy,   established   by 

Theodorie 
Clovis  accepts  Catholic  Christianity 
Justinian  emperor  in  the  East 
The  Code  compiled 
B(  lisarius  n^gains  Africa 
Itjily  restored  to  the  I^]astern  empire 
The  Lombards  invade  Italy 
Gregory  the  Great,  i)opo 
The  Christianization  of  Britain  b(  gins 
Heraclius  driv(n^  back  the  Persians 
The  Hegira 

Pippin  becomes  ruler  of  all  the  Franks 
The  Mohammedans  enter  Spain 
Battle  of  Poictiers 

The  Mayor  of  the  Palace  made  king 
Reign  of  Charlemagne 
Charlemagne  made  king  of  the  Lombards 
Saxony  conquered 
Annt^xation  of  Bavaria 
Conquest  of  northern  Spain 
Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  at  Rome 


2sr) 


ROMVX    HISTORY 


Family  of  the  Jtlt ax  Emperors 


C.  JuliuM  t "lies:* pi 


Juli;i      M    Alius  Italbus 


V.  Octavius      At  ill  Major 


Scrilxmia      Aut;iisiiiH  =  IJvia 

(1st  wif»')  I  |(-'i<»  vvife) 

At,Tii)i>a      Julia     i 


TIlHTiiis    AntiHiia  =  Drusiis 


I  (St»*l)S(Hi  of 
i    August  usi 


('.  ('a«'sar 


rii.  Doniilius 


L.  Carsar    (liTiii aniens      AL^rippiiia 


Ajin|)piiia 
iht-youuKfr 


Caligula 


(Slt-psiHi 

of 
August  US  I 


N't^rit 


L;fnii;uiii-us 


(taiiciius 


SPECIMEN  OF  A   DKSCHIPTTVE  SUMMARY  OF  ROMAN 

POIJTICAJ.    INSTITUTIONS* 

THE  MONARCHY 

The  Chief  Magistrate:  the  King.  Tho  Kovcrnmont  of  tlio  primitive 
state  by  the  elders  of  tli<'  elans  ^nve  way  to  the  rule  of  the  rex  or 
kiii^.  He  \vasclii(f  ex(-eiitive,  chief  })riest,  lawj^iver,  and  jiid^f^. 
He  was  assist (  d  liy  (jionslnn s  imrricidii ,  oi-  d(  (cetive  ofheers,  and 
by  tliiuntnri  jh nlmUtdUt.s,  or  offieials  who  |)i-oseeiited  those  charg  d 
with  tr(  ason. 

The  Senate.  The  s(  nators,  or  jxilrcs,  were  repr(\s(-ntatives  of  the 
different  elans,  and  const  it  uted  the  advisory  council  of  the  king. 

The  People.  There  were  three  (h  in(  nts  in  tlie  i)opulation:  the 
patricians,  or  nol)les,  tlic  phlx  ians,  or  comTuons,  and  the  clients 
who  were  d(  pend(  iits.  The  p(  (>])1<'  were  divided  into  tliirty  curiae, 
and  wciv  (ailed  together  liy  tlie  king  in  the  coiiiitut  n/rifita,  which 
met  to  consider  matt(  rs  cone,  ruing  tlie  s(  veral  clans,  the  question 
of  war  or  jx  ace,  etc.  j'or  s(  r\ice  in  tlie  army  they  were  organized 
on  th»'  basis  <»f  landed  pi'oj)erty  in  the  cotitHin  rcniun'dfti,  made  up  of 
193  c<  nturies. 

THE  in-:prHLi(^ 

The  MA(iJsTiiA'rES 

The  consuls,  two  in  numlx  r,  chosen  annually,  took  tho  place  of 
the  king  in  509  n.  c.  The  consul  pnvsidcd  oyer  th<'  senate  and 
comitid,  acted  as  judge,  and  as  commander-in-chief. 

A  dictator  was  chosen  by  the  consuls  in  times  of  great  danger. 
He  had  supn^me  jx.wer  ov(-r  olTicials  and  private  citizens,  and  no 
one  could  veto  his  action.  The  magister  equitum,  his  lieutenant, 
commanded  tlie  cavalry. 

The  tribunes,  first  chosen  in  493  n.  c,  were  intend(^d  to  protect 
citizens,  especially  ph  beians,  from  the  arl)itrary  action  of  a  magis- 
trate.    The    tribune    could    punish    a   magistrate    who    refused   to 
yi(  Id,  and  his  person  was  inviolable.     The  number  of  the  tribunes 
probal)ly  five  at  first,  was  increased  to  ten  in  b")?  n.  c. 

♦See  exi)lauatory  i)ara„'raph  at  tho  end,  on  p.  290. 


/ 


i 


288 


ROMW    HISTORY 


SUMMARY    OF    ROMAN    POLITICAL    INSTITUTIONS 


289 


The  decemvirs  (151-149  n  r.)  wrrc  (>(]i(i;ils  temporarily  appointed 
to  coil(<et  and  puMisli  the  laws. 

The  consular  tribunes  (11')  'M\7  b.  r.)  wvro  six  military  officials 
vested  with  tix-  iiowcrs  of  tlie  ((msiil,  and  (miuM  he  chosen  from  tlie 
ranks  of  tlic  plflx  ians. 

The  censors  (M:J  or  435),  two  in  numlu'r,  nlicvcd  the  consuls  of 
the  duty  of  assissing  the  i)roper!\-  of  citizens,  of  drawing  u])  the 
lists  of  senator^  aitd  citizens,  and  of  managing  the  finances. 

The  quaestors,  of  wliom  wc  hear  in  tlic  tvgal  ])eri(Kl,  became  tlie 
keepers  of  tlie  slate  funds,  and  after  1  17  wei-r  .Icctcd  l»y  the  ])eople. 
Tin*  f|uaesto]<liii)  is  the  first  regular  magistracy  to  whicli  tlie  ])1.'- 
l)(  ians  were  made  eligihle.  Tlie  numlx-r  of  (luaistors  wa>  raised 
from  two  to  lour  in  121  n.  c,  to  eight  in  2(;7,  to  twenty  hy  Sulla, 
and  to  foi-ty  hy  Caesai'. 

The  praetors,  lirsi  chosen  in  300  v..  c,  were  all  judg(\s  at  first. 
After  227  n.  c.  some  of  iheni  acted  as  judg(\s,  others  as  j)ro\ineial 
govciiiors.  .\fter  Nl  Jf.  c  e\"ery  pi  actor  ser\  ed  one  year  at  IJonh- 
as  a  judge,  and  tlie  following  year  as  goveiiior  (»f  a  province.  At 
tlie  outset  tli(  re  was  (»nly  one  i)raet<tr.  In  212  it.  c.  the  number  was 
rais(  d  to  two,  in  227  n.  c.  to  four,  in  H)7  c.  <  .  to  six,  under  Sulla  to 
tight,  under  Caesar  to  ten.  and  later  to  fonrteen.  and   t(.  sixteen. 

The  plebeian  and  curule  aediles  acquired  in  time  similar  functions. 
The  former  nflii  e  dates  back  te)  tlie  early  yeat-  of  the  rej)ul»lic,  and 
wa>  e(;nn<'ied  with  the  trilmnate.  Thr  eiirule  aedileshii)  was 
established  in  300  n.  (\  The  acdih-;  had  tlie  su[)ervision  of  public 
j)laees,  the  care  of  the  eorn  >upply,  the  sup<'rintendence  of  tlie 
games,  and  ceilain  judicial  jioweis.  Kaeh  of  the  tw(»  colleges  of 
aediles  liad  two  member-. 

The  proconsul,  first  (4iosen  in  320,  In  hi  in  a  |)ro\-ince  tlie  authority 
of  a  consul,  without  1h  ing  und<  r  tin-  constitutional  n  strictions  put 
on  tile  consul  in  1  Ionic. 

The  vigintisexviri,  or  tW(Miy-six  men,  wttc  minor  ofhraals,  and 
comprised  the  **t(  ii  men"  who  aet( d  as  judg<  -  in  sp(  eial  cas(  s,  the 
four  prebcts,  or  judges,  for  c.rtain  districts  of  Italy,  tli<"  tlin-e 
police  magistrates,  tlie  tliree  otiicials  of  the  mint,  the  four  street 
eoniniissioiiers,  and  the  two  comnn-.-ioners  for-  roads  outside  Kouie. 

Ttie  interrex  \\as  an  extraordinary  official  who  came  into  olIic(' 
wh<  n  the  clii<'f  magistracy  1  » caiiie  \acant. 

The  triumvirs  w<  re  thn  e  (  xt raordinary  (.flicials,  Octavius, 
Ant<tny,  and  Lei)idus,  clioseii  in  I3  n.  c  for  a  peri.ui  (.f  liv.-  years, 
with  supreme  power  "t..  put    the  slate  m  order."     The  compact 


made  by  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Oassus,  commonly  known  as  the 
First  Triumvirate,  was  nev(>r  sanctioned  bylaw. 

Methods  of  Election.  Consuls,  |)ra<tors.  c.msors,  and  probably 
the  decemvu-s  w.>re  elected  in  th(^  connfn,  rcnluriata;  curule  aediles, 
quaestors,  ilw  r^gintisrxriri,  the  consular  t-ibunes,  and  the  trium- 
virs of  43  in  tne  ro////7m  /r<l>u/a;  the  j)l(4).4au  tribunes  and  plebeian 
aediles  in  the  ronnhum  p/rhi.s.  \n  inteiT<-x  served  for  five  days 
only.  How  the  first  interrex  was  chos.-n  is  unknown.  Each  sub- 
secpient  int(Trex  was  appointed  l)y  his  i)redecessor.  Consuls 
became  proconsular  g..vernor^  at  the  end  of  their  year's  term  at 
Rome.  They  usually  cast  lots  for  tlieir  i)rovinces.  The  magister 
equitum  was  appointed  by  t  he  dictator. 

The  certus  ordo.  Tlie  order  in  which  the  office's  were  to  be  held 
was  iix(d  in  c<»urse  of  time,  partly  l)y  hav,  partly  by  custom,  as 
follows:  fr^hmiNs  nnlituni  (one  of  the  six  otheers  attached  to  a 
legioiO.  on,-  (,f  the  ntjnihs^.vm-i,  <|Uaestor,  Inbumis  /,/rhls,  iwdih\ 
censor,  magistvr  r<iultutn,  pra<tor,  interrex,  consul,  dictator. 

Age  Requirement.  After  the  tim<'  of  Sulla  probably  the  minimum 
age  requirement  for  the  (piaestorship  was  thirty-one  years,  for  the 
praetorship  forty,  and  for  th<'  consulsliip  forty-t  llree. 

The  imperium  included  the  power  to  take  the  auspices,  to  repre- 
sent the  state  in  its  dealings  with  foreign  countries,  to  command  the 
army  and  navy,  to  judge  and  inflict  even  the  death  penalty  in  the 
provinces,  to  is.xue  i)ro(4amations,  to  })reside  over  the  senate  and 
popular  assemblies,  and  io  act  as  the  general  executive  officer  of 
the  state.  4he  dictator,  consul,  })ractor,  and  niagistrr  cquitxim  of 
the  regular  officials  had  this  power.     Tlie  others  did  not. 

Curule  magistrates.  I'h..  magistrates  in  the  nrtus  ^n/,.  above  the 
quaestor,  but  not  including  the  pl(4>eian  officials,  had  the  right  to 
sii  in  a  curule  chair  on  official  o<-casions. 

Eligibility  of  Plebeians.  Pl(4)eians  only  were  eligible  to  th(^  tri- 
bunate^ and  acdilcship  of  the  phdjs.  44icy  were  also  eligible  to  the 
consular  tribunate,  to  the  quaestorsliip  after  421,  to  the  con.sulship 
after  300,  to  the  dictatorship  after  :\r,{\,  to  the  e(>nsorship  after  339, 
to  the  pra(  torship  aft.r  33.S,  and  alxjut  th(>  same  time  to  a  place  in 
the  college  of  curule  aediles. 

Term  of  Office.  The  dictator  was  expected  to  resign  when  the 
task  for  which  he  was  appoint(>d  was  finished.  At  the  most  his 
term  was  limited  to  six  months.  The  censor  lield  office  for  one 
year  and  a  half;  the  interrex  for  five  days,  the  triumvirs  of  43  b.  c. 
for  five  years.     All  other  officialis  held  office  for  one  year,  except 


ROMAN   HISTORY 


SUMMARY    OF   ROMAN   POLITICAL   INSTITUTIONS 


291 


that  the  consul?  and  prartors  spfvchI  for  n  second  yvav,  and  in  some 
cases  for  a  longer  time,  in  th«'  fJi-oviiHTs. 

Veto  Power.  Any  mnj^istratc  could  voto  the  action  of  his 
colleague,  or  of  an  official  l)eneath  him  in  lank.  A  tribune  could 
veto  the  action  of  a  colleague,  or  of  any  magistrate,  hut  his  action 
could  not  be  vetoed  by  any  other  official  sa\e  by  one  of  his 
colleagues. 

Attendants.  A  dictator  was  attended  by  twenty-four  lictors,  a 
consul  l)y  twelve,  the  city  praetor  by  two,  and  a  praetoi-  or  proprae- 
tor in  a  {)rovine<'  l>y  >ix. 

The  fori  u,,iu^  descriptive  summary  deals  witli  the  three  elements 
in  the  st:ite,  viz.,  the  magistrates,  the  senate,  and  the  {)eople  for 
the  regal  period,  and  with  the  magistrates  for  the  repul)lican  j^eriod. 
Mak'  Imilar  summary   for   tlie   senate;   and   people   und<T   the 

republic,  and  for  the  emperor,  the  impt^rial  officials,  the  senate,  and 
the  people  under  tlie  early  and  later  em{)ire.  For  details  see 
Abbot  t'<  Roman  Polih'ml  I nstlfutUms,  pp.  220-204  and  p().  :U1-39S. 
In  analyzing  the  position  of  the  senate  during  the  rei)ul»licaii  [x-riod, 
for  instance,  give  the  number  of  senators  and  the  method  of  choosing 
tliem  at  different  times,  the  j)roperty  and  age  re(iuirement,  the 
J  towers  (jf  tilt  -mate  and  its  method  <»f  exercising  them,  etc.  For 
other  specimen  Summaries,  and  for  Studies,  (^ut-stions  and  other 
"Hel|'    "  the    U((ndlH>(>k   which   i>   i-sued  .simultaneously  with 

this  Hisiofif. 

BiiiEF  Li>r  or    Piooks   fofj   a  School  TanuAHV* 

I?ury,  Uislorif  of  Rome  to  th*  Dedlh  o/  .U.  Aurr/ius,  American  Rook 
Co.,  X.  Y.  $l.r»t).  A  good  sketch  of  ini{)erial  liislory  from  the 
battle  of  Actium  to  the  date  indicated  in  the  title. 

F^merton.  fn/roi/urlinn  to  Sfudi/  oj  till  M i(f<Ili'  Aijis^  (linn  tl-  Co., 
Boston,  $1.12.  Well  written  account  of  the  p<'riod  from  a.  i>. 
375  to  SI  I.      Cseful  bibliographii'S. 

How  ;ind  Leigh,  A  11  i.storu  "I  J^'>»"'  to  (he  Death  of  Cuc^'Or,  Long- 
mans, Green  tl-  Co.,  X.  Y.,  $2.(M).      Very  attractive  .-ly],'. 

Pelham,  Oiitlitus  of  Romon  History,  Putnam,  X.  Y.,  $1.75.  A 
scholarly  treatise,  running  to  170  A.  d. 

Abbott,  R(nn<in  Politicot  I nsfifutions,  Oinn  il-  Co.,  Boston,  SI  ..50. 
A  liistory  and  description  of  the  llouian  cons' it  ut  ion  and 
go\'ernment  for  high  -chool  and  college  students. 


♦  A  more  extended  list  of  l»ooks  for  teachers  and  :i<l\  :in«e<l  students  will 
be  found  hi  tlie  Handbook,  which  is  issued  siniultaueuu^ly  witii  this  Htatory. 


Gow,  Cotnponion  to  School  Classics^  Macmillan,    \.   V.,  $1.75.     An 

excellent  little  tn  atisc  on  the  Human  army,  law,  philosophy, 

etc. 
Johnston,  The  Pnvdtc  Lijf  oj  tlic  Rninnnx,  Scott,  Foresman  &  Co., 

Chicago,  Sl.50.     The  best  manmil  <ui  the  subject. 
Kiep(  rt,  Alios  Antiquus^  Sanborn,  Poslon,  SI. 75.     Maps  and  plans 

of  the  ancient  world,  with  index  to  plici  s. 
Munro,    .1    Sourer   Jiook  of   Ronton    Ilislori/,   llcath,    lioston,  SI. 00. 

A    W(  11-chosen    collection    of   (.xtracts    from    (Ik;   sources,    with 

(  xc(  llent  l>ibliographies. 
Robinson,    ReoiJnojs    in    European    Hi  story,   Vol.    I,   Ginn    &   Co., 

Boston,  SI  .50.      Covers  the  later  period. 
Appian,  UniiKtn    II istonj,  translattd  by   White,  2  vols.,  Macmillan, 

X.  v.,  S:5.()(). 
I'anhard,  Liji  oj  Chorlemogne^  Aineiie;;n  B(»<»k  Co.,  X.  Y.,  $0.30. 
Livy,  11  tstorij  oj  h'onii ,  2  \<tls.,  Anw  licnn  liook  Co. 
Muir,   77/c  ('omit,  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  Christian  Knowl- 

i  dg",  $o.f;o. 

Plutarcli,    Lirt's,    the    I)ryd<Ti    1  innslation,    ^o-eall((l,    n'vised    by 

Clougii.      Little,  P)rown  A  Co.,  P,o<ton,  S2.00. 
Polybiu-,    Hisloriis,  translat((l  by  Shuckburgh,  2  vols.,  Macmillan, 

X.  \  ,  '^O.OO. 
The    books    w  ho<"   titl(\s    are   given   ;il)ov<'   niay    i)e    j)urehased    for 

$27.00.      If  possil)l<',  the  following  books  should  be  added. 
Momms<ii,   .1     liislory   oj    Ronw,   5    vols.,  Seiibiu  rs,   X.  "S'.,    $10.00. 
Dill,   lioniott  Society  jrorn    Kero  to  M.  Aiuiltus,  .Macmillan,  X.  Y., 

S2.00. 
I)ill,    Rofuan    Society   in   the    Last    Century  oj  the    W'tshrn    Ktnpire, 

Macmillan,  N.  ^^,  $2.00. 
Platn(  r,    Th*    I'opoyni phi/  and   Monunicrtis  oj  Aneienl   Route,  A|]yn 

A'  Bacon,  Bo.^ton,  $3.00. 
Putzg(  r',    Ilistorischer  Scluil-Atlas,    V(  Ihagen    ^   Klasing,    Leipzig, 

$1.00. 
S.allust,    Florus,    and    Velleius    Pat(  renins,    translated    by    Watson, 

Macmillan,  X.  V..  $1  .00. 
Suetonius,  The  Tireln  ^'r/r.sv/r.v,  tninslated  by  Thompson,  Mncmillan, 

.\.  v.,  $1.50. 


INDEX 


293 


INDEX 


T-  t  in  the  pronunciation  of  the  fon-i^n  words  found  in  the  following,' 

^i^t  '  .......  :viH-t*iit  h:is  bren  iH:irkp«i.  juiti  tht^  words  have  been  tlivided  into 

■^y"''  livisidii  of  tiiKil  -fi'is,  -tiius,  and  -'''■'"'  into  two  syllables  (pro- 

nounced -«/V.i-':  pled  by  most    l>«>oks  of  reft-r  Has  bt-en  followed  here, 

alth.aifzh  in  iimNi  of  t  hes*- cusfssonie  tfaclirrs  m.iy  pitf.-r  the  more  nearly  inouo- 
syllabic  pronunf!uli(»ii,  -.s/njnti.  Where  It  seemed  necessary,  vowels  havt-  b<-eu 
marked  as  h.n^Mir  short.  Other  devices  used  to  Indicate  the  sound  of  a  letter 
an-  the  tnlhmint;:  a.  like  a  in  far:  9.  lik.-.  in  nire:  e,  like  r  in  call;  eh,  like  ch 
*"'■'  '•  ^,  lilxcviii  §,  like  «  in  //(/.S-.    The  French  uasal( somewhat 

like  ng  in  f/on(/)  is  indicated  by  A.  Under  -cercd  h-ttcis  are  silent.  A  full  set  of 
rules  governing  the  i.r<.nuneiation  of  Latin  proj^r names,  when  usetl  in  an  Eng- 
lish sentence,  has  been  fornuilated  in  an  adndrable  way  by  Professor  Walker, 
an.t  i!i:i\  L  f..iind  in  liis  forihcominKeditiou  of  Caesar's  aaUic  War.  For  top- 
i*":il  >'n  ^t'd  itn  ihe  Index  see  the  llundbook  Jar  Teachers. 


( lit^  ( '  I  'net  s  I!  ) 

Ac'ci-us  (or  At'ti-U8K  writer  of 
tra^;edy,  "J^K 

A-chae'ans    (or  A-chai'ans),     iPfi. 

H'l;  Achaean  leajj^iie.  \'m\ 
Ac'ti-um,  battle  of.  :«3 
Ad-ri-a-no'ple,  baiiieor,  iiin 
Ad-ri-at'ic  Coast,  :>*  iv 
Ae'dile-ship,   CuTule,    esiablishe.l, 

I'M:  ojM-ii  u>  plel)eians.  120;  see  a!s<i 

Ae-ge'an  Sea,  iHr> 

Ae-mil'i-an  Way,  i:i7 

Lu'ci-us    Ae-miri  ua    Pau'lus,   at 

("annae.  IT'i 

Ae-ne'as,  36 

Ae'qui-ana.  the,  iccathm  of.  i:i; 
wars  with  ifome.  6-' 

Ae-ser'ni-a,  h5 

Ae-toli-ans,  i^G 

A-fra'ni-us.  :io:! 

Africa,  made  province,  2OJ ;  occu- 
pied by  the  Vandals,  -1U5.  4'.tt',;  le^ 
conquered  by  Justinian.  Mi^;  taken 
by  the  Mohammedans,  5<;6 

Agrarian  Questions,  control  c.f  state 

land,  IS,  11)4;  growth  of  estates,  !:!:>; 

en)ploynient  of  slaves.   Kii:  law  of 

Tiberius  (iracchus,  '•^'*  ■"" 
A-grlc'0-la.  392. 410 
Agriculture,  principal  early  indus 


292 


try.  21  ;  influenct-  on  character,  47: 
ownership  <»f  lantl.  -IW.  47.  4>^;  low 
state  of  a^'riculiure.  257 

Ag-ri-gen'tum.  ks.'..  174 

A-grip'pa.  :i4i 

A-grip-pi'na.  \^%  364 

Al'a-ric,  4i'j  vx\ 

Al'ba  Fu'cens,  :=.,  76 

Al'ba  Lon'ga.  30-38 

Al'cu-in.  r>7.^. 

Al-e-man'ni,  449,  485 

A-l«'al-a,  21.5 

Al'li-a  River,  battle  of  the,  64 

Allies,  (seeSOCii) 

Alps,    the,    geographical    boundary, 
\~ ;  political  boundary.  16.5 

Am-mi-a'nus  Mar-cel-li'nus,  488 

A-mu'li-u8,  37 

Amusements,  10.  236.  238,  323 

Ancus  Mar'ti-us,  :{8 

An-dris'cus,  the  pretender  in  Mace- 
donia. 195 

Ll'vi-us  An-dro-nl'cu8,  "father  of 
iiomau  literature,"  238 

An'ge-lo.  San,  castle  of,  419 
Anglo-Saxons,    their    conquest    of 
Britain,    551;    their   conversion    to 
Christianity,  552 
An-the'mi-us,    architect  of  St.  So 
phia,  538,  .545 

An-ti'0-ehus  III,  (See  Syria) 


{Rfffrencfx  <//>  to  sertinns. ) 

An'ti-um,  62 

An-to-nl'nus,  Mar'cus  Au-reli-us, 
character,  421;  wars  with  I^arthia, 
422;  with  Marcomanni,  42:^;  devel- 
opment of  serfdom,  424;  persecu- 
tion of  Christians,  425 ;  his  Medita- 
tions, 434 

An-to-ni'nus  Pi'us,  420 

Antony,  Mark,  consul,  314;  contest 
with  Decimus  Brutus,  31.5,  316;  tri- 
umvir, 317-321 ;  attacked  by  Cicero. 
318;  loses  at  Actium.  322 

Ap'en-nlnes,  Mountains,  direction, 

17 
A-pol'lO,  26 

Ap'pi-an,  121.  141 

Appian  Way,  75,  137 

Ap'pi-us  Clau'dl-UB,  75 

A-pu-le'ius,  writer,  4:{7 

A-pu'li-a.  71 

Aq'uae  Sex'ti-ae,  battle  of,  244 

Aqueducts.   Appian.  i:Ui;    Claudian, 

:>•;•-';  Anio  Novus,  .%2;  408.  .533 
A-qui-le'ia,  423 
Ar-ca'di-us,  41)2 

Ar-chi-me'des,  the  mathematician 
of  Syracuse,  174 

Ar'de-a,  41 

Ar'es.  237 

A-rim'i-num,  85, 165 

Ar-is-ti'des,  writer,  441 

Ar-is-tob'u-lus,  251 

A'ri-ua  or  A-ri'us,  heretic,  174 

Army,  as  organized  l)y  Servius  Tul- 
lius,  40,56;  soldiers  paid  and  more 
efficient,  70;  leaders  experienced, 
141;  reform  of  army,  142,  444;  its 
si'/..'in264i3.C..143 

Ar'nus  River,  9 

Ar'pi,  173 

Ar'ri-an,  writer,  441 

Ar'te-mis,  I74 

Ar-ver'ni,  212 

As-ca'ni-us,  36 

Asceticism,  5i9 

As'cu-lum,  battle  of,  84 

Assemblies,  (see  Comitia) 
A'taulf.  493.  494 

Atli-a-na'si-us,  theoir.gian,  474 
At'ta-lus,  III  (see  Pergamum) 
Attendants,  on  magistrates,  see  ,, 
290 

Au'daz.  200 


Au'gur,  31 

Au-gus-ta'les,  343 

Au-gus'tine.  St.,  196 

Au-gus'tUS,  .Julitis  Cae->ars  heir, 
315;  triumvir,  316-321;  wins  at  Acti- 
um, 322;  his  .scheme  of  government, 
3;i3-3:i5;  prf)vincial  government, 33»i- 
339;  improvement  of  Rome  and  Ita- 
ly, 340-342;  social  reforms,  343;  diar- 
acter,  345;  literature  under  him, 
346349 

Au-gus'tus,  as  title.  333,  461 
Au-re'li-an,  4.52 
Au-re'li-an  Way.  Kff 
Aus-tra'si-a,  560,  561 
Av'en-tine  Hill,  35 

Ba-du-i'la,  5  to 

Bae'da,  iOngUsh  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian, 552 

Bal-e-a'ric  isles,  1 17 

Barbarians  (see  the  Germans) 

Baths,  Public.  386 

Battles,    (arranged    alphabetically) 
of,   Actium,   322;    Adrianople.  490; 
Aquae  Sextiae,  244;    A.sculum,  84; 
Cannae,  172;  Carrhae,  297;  Caudine 
Forks,  71 ;  Chiilous,  502;  Cyno.sceph- 
alae,  186;   Ecnomus,  158;  Heraclea, 
81;    Magnesia,  190;   Metaurus,    176; 
Munda,  309:  Mutina,316;  Mylae,  1.58; 
Philippi,  320;  Pydna,  194;  Ramline 
Plains,  244;  Koncesvalles,  574;  Sen- 
tinum,    75;    .Soissons,  .5.55:    Strass- 
burg,   5.56;   Teutoberg  I-\)rest,    :^39; 
Thapsus,  307;    Ticinus  River,   170 i 
Tours,  567;    Trasimene  Lake,  170; 
Trebia  River,  170;  Zama,  180;  Zela, 
307 

Bavaria,  conquered  by  Charlemagne, 
573 

Bel'gae,  245 

Bel-i-sa'ri-US,  his  reconquesi  of  Af- 
rica and  Italy,  '>:«(.  .540 

Benedict,  St.,  Rule  of,  .522 

Ben-e-ven'tum,  85 

Bes'ti-a,  Lu'ci-us  Cal-pur'ni-us, 

271 

Bibliography  (.see  i)p.  2S»o,  291,  and 
llandbo(tk) 

Bi-brac'te,  245 
Bi-thyn'i-a,  192,  218 
Bo-e'thi-us.  534 

Britain,  invaded  by  Caesar,  245;  sub- 


A 


294 


ROMAN    HISrOKY 


(/. 

du«l,  'At\-:  '  ..ii((U' "I'-'i  by  A I 

ami     S;i:v"iiN.     fial ;      (Mi|-ist  i;iiii/.»:-»l, 

Brun-disl-um,  137 

Brut'ti-ans,  7'.t 

Bru'tus,  Dec'i-mu8,  ;n  »-;{ir. 

Bru'tus,  Ju'ni-us,  il 

Bru'tus,  Mar'cus.  noo 

Bur-gun'di-ans,  tii'\  occupy  iiir 
Rhuiie  valley,  4H^;  coii(|ii*Tt'(i  by 
P'ranks,  h'yH;  tilt' IilU>'Un<l!:iU  l;iA\s 
and  tht'  yifitfmKimH. 

Bur'rus,  prt'lrct  <<f  \%t<».  ;{r>i 

By-zan'ti-um  ( see  Constantinople ) 

Caeli-an  Hill,  35,38 

Cae'pi-o,  VM 

Cae're,  6i 

Cae'sar,  Ga'ius.  ^'raiKison  <.f  au^-iis 

tils.  :i'.i) 
Caesar,  Ga'ius  Ju'li-us.  taiiy  «a 

rt't-r. 'JiM):  triuiii\  ii,  •.'!•!;  :j''i#:  nuniii*  -.1 
of  ( r;inl  i  1,  --'If.  -t.  wii  h 

Poinpey    aiui   tlir    siuau',    ;itio;{iiii; 
ilralh.  :?!i»:  bis  statcsiiiauslnp,  :ui 
:ii:i;  his  111*  r;.!-y  \v..rlc,  30H,  XM) 
Cae'sar,  Lu'cl-us,  Kr.ui.isoti  of  au- 

jxust  us.  :i'iO 
Cae'sar,  as  lirir,  ifri  46r, 
Ca-lig  u-la  ( * >r  Ga'ius ),  :^iT 
Cam-a-rl'na,  v^-^  v 

Ca  minus,  70  \ 

Cam-pa'ni-a,  <>criij,i...i  by  tiie  Etrus- 
cans, 9;  in  Saiiiiiitt-  wars,  (W,  69  T>; 
in  st'yond  Punic  war.  173;  I'oinpcii, 
388 

Campus  Mar'ti-us,  lu 
Can'nae.  t>atilr  ^f,  \-,-i 
Can-u-le'i-us,  iiT 
Ca-nu'sl-um,  75 
Ca-pe'na.  C'» 
Cap'i-to-line  Hill,  '-'^^ 

Cap  ri,  :{:.:: 

Cap'u-a, 'i'^.  bfsi  ' :<»!iH\  I7".i 

Car-a-cal'la,  ni.iK-'s.m  ircmirnrjii- 

■/.CIIS,    \  It) 

Car'rhae.  baiti.  : 

Car-si'o-Ii,  ^ 

Carthage,     p^Mlal>t■^     i;r.t,  fi 

aK'ii"^^  Pyrrhus,  sj;  coiiitii-n nl 
treaty  with  Koine,  92;  location  «>f 
city.  115:  Iter  (•Tn[»in',  nti,  ns;  lu-r 
governmeut,  H7,  14!.>,  151;  her  army, 


uon.s  with  Syrac!!  e.  15,3; 
fir  r   with    Rome,    154-Mi:^;   her 

S{>ani-ii  territory,  166;  second  war 
with  Rome,  16H-IHI;  third  war  with 
Home,  2oa;  destruction,  201;  pros- 
perity under  the  VandaLs,  1U7 

Cas'ca,  310 

Cas-i-li'num,  I7:i 

Cas'si-an  Way,  I37 

Cas'si-us  Lon-gl'nus,  Ga'ius.  310. 

31 1,  :!20 

Cas'trum  Nov'um,  77.  78 
Cat'i-line.  Lu'ci-us  Ser'gi-us,  203 
Ca'to,  Mar'cus  Por'ci-us,   the  cen- 

,sor  opposes  extravagance,  227;  his 
censorship,  228;  his  literary  work, 

Cato,   Marcus   Porcius,    of   rti(a. 

307.  308 

Ca-tul'lus,  tiie  po.t,  :{27 
Cat'u-lu8.    Quln'tus    Lu-ta'ti-us. 

aristocratic  ifad.'r,  2S'.» 

Cau'dine  Forks,  bat  tic  of,  71 

Celts,  (s.e  Gauls) 

Censorship,  esiatilislird,  iiS;  dunes, 

lis;  ojH'n  t(t  plctiidatis,  rj'>.  see  also 

|).  28K 

Centuries,  (S( .  Army  and  Comltia 
Centuriata) 

Ce'res,  27 

Cer'tus  Or'do,  see  j).  2Mi 

Chalons,  ttattie  of.  ri02 

Char-le-magn'e  ( Charles  the 
Great),  appearance,  57o;  liis  con 
quests.  .iTl  r»74:  patronage  ol  letters, 
r>75,  a7'i:  bis  statesmanship,  577;  his 
alliance  with  the  chiiivh,  57s ; 
crou  i.ed  emiH-ror  in  tlie  west,  579 

Charles  Mar-tel',  561;  defeats  Mo- 
hainmedans,  .=)t;7 

Cher-so-ne'se,  H'O 

Chil'de-riC,  last  of  the  Mer<»vingiau 
klnus..^.(i2 

€hlO'do-vic,  kinu  of  the  Franks,  535 

Christians,  persecuted  l)y  Nero,  36(5; 
ir'-aimcnt  by  Tra.jan,  407;  by  Mar- 
(  11^  \un-lius,  12">;  spread  of  Chris- 
tianitv".  \*> .  hostility  of  thegovern- 
niciii,   ITn:  oleration,  471; 

conversion  oi  LJonslantine,  472; 
council  at  Xicaea,  174;  Christianity 
represse<l  by  Julian,  470;  paganism 
disapx)eais,  .". bi,  517;   Ananisni.  5IS. 

also    Asceticism,    Monasti- 


IXDEX 


295 


{Rf\ffrenrfs  arc  to  KPetiona. ) 
cism,  the  Papacy,  Leo  the  Great, 
Gregory  the  Great 

Chronology,  see  pp.  277-385 

Cic'e-ro,  Mar'cus  Tul'li-us,  advo 
cates  Manilian  law,  250;  character, 
292;  suppres.ses  Catllinarian  con- 
spiracy, 2f»3;  political  methods.  2<.>4; 
oi)poscs  Antony,  318;  eulogized  by 
Velleius.  319 

Ci-li'cl-a,  250 

Cim'bri,  move  southward,  243;  de- 
feated on  the  Raudine  Plains,  244 

Ci'ne-as,  84 

Cin'na,  Lu'ci-us  Cor-ne'li-us,  dem- 
ocratic leader.  283 

Cls-al'pine  Gaul,  165 

Citizers,  patricians  and  plebeians, 
.">3;  civrs  siiif  suffragio,  8S;  early 
limits  of  citizen  territory,  89 ;  nnm- 
her  of  .•iii.'.ens.  90,  262;  Italians 
fuaile  citi/.eiis,  276-280;  citizenship 
trranted  by  emperors.  .363,  381; 
-jratileii  to  all  freemen,  ttc, 

Gives  sin'e  suf-fra'gi-o,  88,  90 

Ci-vi'lis,  a  Hatavian  leader,  ;^82 

Clau'di-US,  appearance,  ;i,58;  char- 
acter, 360,361;  public  w<n-ks,  362; 
pi  o\  incial  i)olicy.  3t)3 

Clau'di-us  Cae'cus,  Ap'pi-us,  hi 

Cle-o-pa'tra,  307 

Clients,  ndation  to  patron,  53 

Clo-a'ca  Max'i-ma,  46 

Clo'di-us  Al-bi'nus,  428 

ClO-til'da,  I-'raidiish  cineen,  5.56 

Clo'vis,  king  of  the  Franks,  ,5.5<)  5.5K 

Clu'si-um,  64 

Code,  the.  543,  544 

Co-lo'ni,  424 

Colonies,  Antium,  62;  Satricum.  62, 
m;  Setia,  62,  66;  Tarracina,  62;  Xep- 
et<\  66;  Fregellae,  luteratuna,  Alba 
Fticens,  Carsi(»li,  Narnia,  75;  I'on- 
tia.  Minturnae,  Sinuessa,  Hatria. 
Sena  CJallica.  Castrum  Novum,  77; 
Paestum,  Bene\entum,  Ae.sernia, 
Ariminum,  Firmum.  85;  how  col- 
onies were  located,  75;  maritime 
colonies  and  trade,  77,  78 

Col-os-se'um,  dedicated  by  Titus, 
385 

Co-lum'na  Ros-tra'ta,  158 
Com-it'i-a    Cen-tu-ri-a'ta,    based 
on  Servian  army  organization,  .56, 


98;  independent  of  senate.  1,30;  re- 
formed, 210;  overshadowed  by  .sen- 
ate, 211;  .see  also  p.  289 

Com-it'i-a  Cu-rl-a'ta,  organization 
and  powers,  55 

Com-it'i-a  Tri-bu'ta,  established, 
114;  independent  of  senate,  130;  see 
also  p.  289 

Com-it'i-um  (assembly-place),  55 

Commerce  and  Trade,  small  at 
first,  21,  49;  development,  77;  com- 
mercial treaty  with  Carthage,  77; 
silver  coinage,  133;  not  early  motive 
for  expansion,  182;  trade  with  the 
provinces,  218 

Com'mo-dus,  426 

Communities.  Italian,  how  organ- 
ized, 8t5  88;  reformed  by  Caesar  3i;{ 

Con-cil'i-um  Ple'bis,  established, 
103;  independent  of  senate  i:^);  lim- 
ited in  power  by  Sulla,  286;  .see  also 
p.  289 

Con'stan-tine,  srde  emperor  467; 
his  conversion  to  ( 'hristianity.  472; 
makes  ("onstaniiiio|tle  his  capital, 
175 

Constantinople,  made  Roman  cap- 
ital, 475;  withstands  barbarians, 
537,  546;  her  legacy  to  the  modern 
world,  ,547 

Constitution  (see  Rome,  the  state) 

Consulship,  establishment  of,  .59; 
effect  abroad.  59;  how  consulship 
differed  from  kingship,  95;  alterna- 
tion, 9.');  insignia,  97;  subordinated 
to  senate.  129 

Co'ra,  13 

Corinth,  destruction  of,  196 

Corsica,  taken  from  Carthage,  162 

Cor'vus(or  Crow),  157 

Courts,  temporary  courts,  266.  270,- 
standing  courts  established  liy  Sul- 
la, 287;  reforms  of  Pompey  and 
Crassus,  291 

Cras'siis,  Mar'cus  Li-cin'i-us,  de- 
feats Spartacus.  290;  consul  with 
Pompey,  291 ;  triumvir,  296;  death, 
297 

Cre-mo'na.  137,  I65 

Crete,  206 

Cro'ton,  11 

Cte'si-phon,  405 

Cu'mae,  gives  alphabet  to  Latinm,  11 

Cu'ra  Al-i-men-toTum.  4oo 


296 


KOMAX    H  lb  loin 


INDEX 


297 


(Rfffrfnceti  at*  ■•■  .  ••  .••/,. 
Cu'ri-a,  ;it>  in  oriKinal  ;5  trilws 
orgiiui/.ati'Hi.   .'>i:    l>i-i,..r  <-oiiiiti.i 
c'uri:il:i.  '>.t;    1>.ims  i  >t  »  ;iil,\ 

Cur'sus  Ho-no'rum.  21a 
Cu'rule  Chair,  i'7 
Curule  Magistrates,  st^e  p.  289 
Cyb'e-le,  237 

CS^n-os-cepli'a-lae,  battle  or,  im 
Cyprus,  2o»j 

Da'ci-a.  392. 408 

Dag'o-bert,  i>j» 

De-cem'vi-rate (s.o  Laws  of Tw(»ive 

T;it)les) 

De-la'tioii.;!fii,  ;«•! 

Democracy,  the,  organized  iiy  ilu- 
Grarelii,  t»aT  .'♦■.'. i;  sn[)]ioiir(l  liy  Ma 
rill  I  r  iiinipliaiit  uiul<  r  (  iiiti  « 

2H;{:  overthrow  11  \^y  Snll;i 
VlVt'<l  by  Lrl)itlus.  •Mi;  KUlIl^  uiuitT 
PoiuiMy  aiKi  Crassus.  '29(1  '3'.M  :  lost-s 
uiuUt  <;itiliin>,  •-".»:',;  siipiKirts  the 
lirst  trtuiiivir.iic  .iihl  iluMMiiitiif -t 
Julius  Cat'sar.  i'.i'J-:;!:! 

Di-a'na.  2t> 

Dictatorship,  tin*    ,   >   >   ■  >■       tj^. 

Sulla  as    dictatt  1.  ar, 

diet  a  lor  for  life.  :;i  . 
Digest,  th.  leCode) 

Di-o-cle'tl-an,  liis  scht-ioe  of" 

♦■riUllt'Ilt.   15;»  it'iti 

Di-o-nys'i-us,  the  Uist<»riari,  61 

Di-tarco.  21N1 

Do-mit'i-an,   liiseharat  his 

reiLjn,  :iliu  ;iit'3 
Domitian  Way,  the.  Ml 
Dru'sus.  Mar'cus  Li'vl-us,  the  trih- 

one.  wisli  itizenshii»  to 

the  Italians.  27ti 
Dru'sus,    son  o!"   tlif  crtMi-'r-Mr  Tihi-ti- 

vis,  353 

Du-ca'tus,  465 

Du-i'li-US,  Ga'lus.  naval  .oHirnaril- 

er.  15H 
Dy'arch-y.  the.  xi\  :w,  i.vj 
Dyr-ra'chi-um,  1 57,  305 

Eb'ro  River.  Cart hagiiu 
166.  168 

Ec'no-mus.  battle  of.  ifv- 

Economic  Conditions  <-••  Agra- 
rian Questions.  Agriculture, 
Commerce.  Slaves) 


E-dic'tum  Per-pet'u-um,  n5 
Education.  2:« 

Egypt,  territoiy.  !-i.  a  >>istt(i  by 
Ivoriif,   IH5:  inailr    a  rk'l>en(leiicy,  197 

Ei'nhard,  bto 

£-la-gab'a-lus,  447 

Emperors,  list  of.  .see  pp.  281-285 

Empire  in  the  East,  the  two  aukhs 
ti.  ICii.  i<>:;  Coiislaiitinopl''  iiiadi* 
capital,  47a;  separation  of  the  East 
from  the  West,  492;  reasons  for  sui- 
vival  of  the  empire  iii  the  East.  537; 
rel^n  of  Justinian.  538-545;  fall  of 
(  ntiiioph'.  ,^ii6;  her  contribu- 

tion to  the  inotleru  world,  547 

Empire  in  the  West,  separation  from 
the  J-List,  t'.»-J;<'ondition  in  A.  I).  4TR, 
5U8.  5*m;  reasons  for  ber  "f:ill.'5io, 
51 1  ;  reviv'i'd  hy  ('liarhnKmil*',  579 

En'nl-us,  vi,.r\-  ,,f  K'.aiii"  i:;:  writer 
of  epic  pori  vy ,  -!'.'<h 

F-pl'rus.  72  (see  ais..  Pyrrhus) 

Eq'ui-tes.  borseiuen  in  tin-  early 
army.  IT;  rirh  men  not  in  tlie  sen- 
air,  'jjj ;  ontt-r  {xiiiiics,  325 

Es'qui-line  Hill,  35,  lo 

E-tru'ri-a.  territory.  l»;  ^^adiatonal 
combats.  1";  possibly  mistress  of 
l\'"irH-.  ily    wars   with    l\onif, 

60;  her  power  defliiies.  •;:{;   no  p^i' ' 
in  tlie  Social  War.  'J77 

E-trus'cans,  their  influence  on  the 
Italians,  10;  skill  in  building,  H),  46 

Eu-boe'ans,  iw 

Eu-phra'te§  River,  20 

Expansion,  <see  maps  sliowinjj;  de- 
vt'h)pintMit  of  territory) 

Fa'bl-us,  Quin'tus,  a  Kenerai,  7i 
Fa'bi-us.    Max'i-mus,     Quin'tus, 

'the  La^^t^'ard."  171 
Fa'bl-us  PiC'tor.  the  historian,  43 
Fa-bric'1-us     Lus'cl-nus,    Qa'lus, 

•.i  LTfiirral.  so 

Fa-le'ri-i,  66 
Fas'ces,  51 
Fau'nus.  27 
Fau'stu-lus.37 
Fir'mum.  .^^^ 

Fla-min'i-an  Way,  75  7ft,  i:n.  342 
Flam-i-nl'nus.  Tl'tus  Quln'ctl-us, 
defeats  Macedonia,  IHH,  187 

Flo'rus,  43S 

Franks,    the,  their   raids,  449.   their 


{Reffrencf  <\i  •  to  mctiona.) 
early  territory.  485;  their  early  eon- 
(luests,  555;  their  Christianization, 
556,  .557;  under  th(^  Meroviufjians, 
558-56:i;  the  Mayor  of  the  Palace,  560, 
f>6l.  568;  they  defeat  the  Mohamme- 
dans. 567;  under  Charlema^'ur  con- 
quer the  Western  World,  .a7l-.-,7<j 

Fre-gel'lae.  7,5 

Fron'to,  a  writer,  4:^6 

Oal'ser-lc.  king  of  the  Vandals.  49,- 

4!t7 

Ga'ius,  a  writer  ou  law,  439 
Oal'ba,  367.  377 

Oal'li-a     Nar-bo-nen'sis.      mad*- 
province, 24 1,  l'42 

Oal-li-e'nus,  448  45j 

Ganges  River.  20 

Ga-ron'ne  River,  5,^)8 

Gaul,  .souriiern  (JaiU  made  province, 

241,242;   northern  and  central  (iaul 

conquered    by  Cae.sar,  2J5.  -.Md;   ,},,. 

"Gallic  Empire,"  451,  452;  Gaul  taU 

en  by  tlie  Visi^'oths  and  HurKim- 

dians,  494.  49S;  by  the  Franks,  .5.58.  559 

Gauls,   the,    capture  Rcmie,   t;i.    nr,; 

effect,  66;  wars  with  Rome,  105 

Gel'li-us.  Au'lus,  a  writer,  25.  vm 

Geography,  the,  of  Italy,  I6-20,  34 

Ger-go'vi-a,  2ir. 

Ger-ma'nl-cus.  nephew  of  Tiberius 
;i5.3 

Germans,  the,  in  time  of  Augustus, 
339;    southward    movement    under 
Marcus  Aurelius,   433;  early  incur- 
sions, 449;  mode  of  life,  482-486;  mi- 
gration Into  the  empire,  487;  driven 
south  by  the  Huns,  488,489;  oceupa 
tion  of  Roman  territory,  .509;   treat 
ment  of  the  Romans,  514.  51.5,  533; 
relations  of  the  Germanic  kingdoms 
to  the  empire,  515,  513;   conquests 
not  lasting,  5.53 

Ge-ru'ni-um.  172 

Oes'si-us  Flo'rus,  3s;{ 

Glab'ri-o,  Ma'ni-us,  A-cil'l-us,  189 

Gladiatorial  Contests,  j  .»; 

Goths,   (see  Visigoths  au.i  Ostro- 
goths) 

Gracchus,  Ga'lus.  political  policy 
of,  263-2a5,  267:   attacks  the  senate 
266:  his  legislation.  264.  2^5,  269;  his 
motives,  268;  his  death,  ;270 


Gracchus.  Ti-ber'i-us,  motives, 
257,  .'58;  his  land  law,  259-262;  depos- 
'■^  <  )ciav  ius,  261 ;  death  of  Tiberius, 
261 

Greece,  ded.ired    free,    187;  see  also 

Greek  Settlements 
Greek    Settlements,   in  Italy.  11 ; 

civilization,  character.  12 ;  influence 

on  Hr)me,  i:^8,  1S9,  229-238 
Gregory  the  Great,  5.30 

Ha'dri-an,  made  emperor,  412;  char- 
acter. 113;  administrative  and  judi- 
cial reforms,  414.  415;  foreign  ixilicy, 
416  418;  the  Pantheon  and  his  Mau- 
soleum, 419 

Ha-dru-me'tum,  307 
Ha-mil'car  Bar'cas,  I6I 
Han'ni-bal,  character,    167;  attacks 
Sauuntiim,  IHK;  marches  into  Italy. 
169;  campaigns  in  Italy,  170-173;  al- 
l'"ice    with  Philip,  175;    at  Zama, 
1^":  <leath,   l',iO 
Has'dru-bal,    brother  <»f  Haiuiibal. 

<lefeated  on  the  Metaiu-us,  166.  176 
Ha'tri-a,  77,  78 
He-gi'ra.  the,  .'^.64 
Hel-vet'i-i,  the.  245 
Her-a-cle'a.  battle  of.  8 J 
He-rac'li-us.  542 
Her'cu-les,  26 
Her'ni-ci,   the,  locatifm  of.  13 ;  join 

the  Latin  league,  61 
Hi'e-ro,   besieges   Me.ssana.    l.-.l;  as- 
sists Rome,  155;  death,  174 
Hlr'tl-us,  consul.  3i6 
Ho-no'ri-us,  492 
Horace,  the  poet,  347 
Ho-ra'ti  us,  60 
Hor-ten'si-us.  32s 
Huns,  the,  enter  Europe.  488;  invade 
Gaul,  501 ;  defeated  at  Chalons,  .502 

ll-lyr'i-ans,  the,  at  war  with  Rome 

l6.->  ' 

Im-per'i-um,  the,  .see  p.  289 
Industries,    trades,    49;    taken   by 

freedmen,    135;     development.    234. 

235;  .see  also  Agriculture 
Institutes,  the,    (.see  the  Code  and 

Gaius) 

In-ter-am'na,  75 

Interrex,  the,  see  p.  288 

Italians,  the.  2  main   branches,  13; 


W 


i 


i 


298 


ROMAN     HISTOltV 


INDEX 


299 


dittvrent  iiiod^s  (if  living,.  H.  ;"i  :iir- 
riciiliural  people,  2\  :   fh;ir:tct.r.  ■-':; 
same  origin  aslif-i'-  :'>''-;    "lij:;!!!! 
zation  iiiuier  Ron,  l  :  siriv.'  i<»i- 

(•iti/'*ii--liiit  r:*;     S.K-ial  War,  27 
rtTri\t'citiz<'iis!iiji.  e7l»,2H<i 
Italy,  ^"il  and  pro(iucts,  In;  tjeoKra- 
l>hy,  It;,  17;   Adriatic  coast,  IH;  vv.-st 
coast,   l'.t:   unlfyinix  intineiK •♦■--,    -'": 
coTHiurst  of  iTiiTral  Italy  ina)!- 
nianviii  .them  Italy   «.ccu- 

pied,  85;  stale  of  Italy  under  Cae- 
sar, 313;  uiuler  Augustus.  ;m-2.  :!1:^: 
in  the  second  centin-y,  1(m 
unilrr  Odoacer,  'xnr.  under  The-nin- 
rir,  f»;fi.  5:Si ;  con« luered  by  Justinian, 
hio:  by  the  Lombards,  .lis.  5 lit:  by 
Charleniag'ne,  571 

je-ru'sa-lem.  taken  b\  romp. 

e.ipruri'd  liy  Til  n^    '-  ■ 
Jo-se'phus,  the  hisionan,  -"i 

Ju-dae'a.  i!^' 

Ju-gur'tha.    Unm    "f    Nnnndia,    at 

war  with  Home.  -71.  •37-i 
Ju'li-a.  Dom'na,  int 
Ju'U-a  Mae'sa.  ir,.' 
ju'li-a  Ma-mae'a,  if>'- 
Ju'li-an.  479 

Julian  Emperors,  s. ,    (,   ■•■<■> 
Ju-li-a'nus  Did'i-ua.  trr 
Ju-li-a'nus.  Sal'vi-us,  ii.. 

Ju'pi-ter,  -7 

Jus-ti'ni-an.  his  charart.  i  his 

coi  HI  nests   in  ilie  W  ^-'-r'll :   his 

rer--iaii  wars,  r-)ri;  tlif  ( '<  mI.-,  ni:;,  .'lU; 
his  bnihlinys,  51;') 

Ju've-nal,  409 

King.  the.  llis  i.'.v.  » 

Knights,  Hi'    i-'Equites; 
Ko-ran',  the,  5«a 

Lab'a-rum,  th-.chn^ti  tn  Ni.H^^.ir.i. 
47:-'.  j::^ 

La-cin'i-an  Promontory,  Hi-    ^i 

Land-holding  (s'e  Agrarian  Ques- 
tions) 

La'res.  th.-,  ^7 

Lattn  League,  lii*    torma 
jidned   by  tlie   H-Tiiiei,  (11;    at    \a- 
nan<*'  with  Roite  rushed   by 

Rome,  69 


Latins,  the.  accept  Roman  rule.  73; 
tio.stile  to  Graechan  land  laws.  3()i; 
see  also  Latin  League 
La-ti'nus,  -•* 

La'ti-um,  early  extent,  13 
La-vi'ni-a,  ;w 

Laws,  of  Twelve  Tables,  105-111;  of 
V^alevi"-  •nid  Horatins,  ir*;  (d  <"an- 
uleii.  "t"  r,,itdnin>  and  S-xtius, 

1-21  rj:'.;  t  !i<' ( )\iniau  la\\-,  r>;  law> 
f  Horieusins  and  Pnblilins,  i:'.n; 
Manilian  law.  2bii:  the  Mtmicipal 
Law  ■•  ''^'•-ar,  ;'d3;  Burgimdian 
lawv 
Legends,  connection  with  Troy.  :W; 
lt't;<'nd  «>f  A.MH-as.  'M\:  .  d"  Romulus 
and  KeMiu>.  A7;  ot  Xuma  Pompil- 
ius,  Tulln>  Hostilius.  Ancus  Mar- 
tins. 3H;  of  Tanininins  Priseti 

!ii^  Tidliii-,  \o:   i>\  Tanpun 
til'    I'roiid.   11  ;    sniiices    of  eafly   !»•- 
yeiids.  r.':  fxntwth  of  tradition,  i;j 
LeotheGreat,  501.  5j9 
Lep'i-dus,    Mar'cus     Ae-mil'i-us, 

democrat  ic  leadi 

Lep'i-dus,  the  triumvir,  H17,  :'J1 

Lib'yans,  i5o 

Li-cln'i-us  Stol'o.  Ga'ius.  i:i 

Lictors.  see  i>.  :m\} 

Li-gur'i-ans,  61 

Li'ris  River,  71 

Literature  (Poetry):  Kpic  Poet- 
ry,  Liviiis  Andronicns,  Naevins, 
Knniii-  r'.S;  (Urero,  :?-:9:  \'erL'il.  34t'.; 
Lih  .  I .  Sdins  Itali  -aliUN, 

H95- Dramatic  Poetry,  Liviiis 
Andr.micns,  Naevins,  i'lautus.  Ter- 
ence, Eiuiius,  Pacnvius,  Accins,238; 
Seneca,  371— L  y  r  i  c  Poet  r  v  (Ca- 
tullus. 337;  Horace,  -i. 
Emu  lis,  Lncilins,  2;-{S:  Varro.  liriO; 
H,,  P.r^ins,  'M2;   Juvenal, 

lou  i.ie;:iac  I'oeiry,  Tibnllus. 
Properiins,  Ovid,  3tH-Mise»' II  a- 
neons,  didactic  jwtem  of  [^ucr'tius. 
:;■::>;     A//'  llMr:ir.',  iUV:   Dvid, 

Literature  (Prose) :  H  i  s  t  o  r  y,  (  ato, 
2:{9;  .SalUist,  Julius  Caesar,  Nepos. 
T!n     rdvy.n49;    Tacitus,  110;  Sueto- 
I'Morus.   i;«;  Ammiaiius  Mar- 
ccdinus,  IHs;  Protopiii  IJaeda, 

5o-i;  Einhard,  570  i )  r  ,i ;  • .  i  y,  A  f. 
plus  Claudius   Caecus,   CaLo,    23i*; 


I 


( Rfiffrfnrpf!  are  to  sertionft. ) 
Tiberius  Graceh  us,  GaiusCiraccli  us, 
Marcus  Antonius,  Lucius  Grassus. 
Hortensius,  328 ;  Gicero,  329— J  u  r  1  s- 
prudence,  Cicero.  329 ;  Sal  vius  J  u- 
lianus,  415;    Gaiu.s.  439;    Paplnian, 
445;  Trlbonian,  544— L  e  1 1  e  r.s,  Cic- 
ero, 329;    Pliny  the  Younger,  411; 
Fronto,  436  -M  i  s  c  e  11  a  n  e  o  u  .s,  es- 
says of  Varro,  326;  of  Cicero,  329: 
of  Seneca,  371 ;  of  Qtiintilian,  ;^94 ;  of 
Boethius.  534 ;  encyclopedic  writings 
of  Pliny  the  Elder,  .S93;  of  Gellins, 
43(5;    novels  of    Petronlus,    373;    of 
Apuleius,  437;    commentaries.   375; 
Christian     Latin     literature,    410; 
Greek  literature,   194,  397,  3lts,   };u, 
441 

Li-ter'num,  192 
Liv'y,  349 
Lo'crl.  80 

Lombards,    the.   occupy  itai.\.   .sis. 

519;    ovci-thrown    l.\-    ( 'harlfiiiaunc, 

Lu'can,  374 

Lu-ca'ni-a,  13 

Lu-ca'ni-ans,  the  7.» 

Luc'e-res,  the,  :{7,  51 

Lu-cer'i-a.  75 

Lu-cl'li-us,  238 

Lu-cre'ti-a,  41 

Lu-cre'ti-us,  325 

Lu-CUl'lUS,       commaiKler      against 

Mithridates,  248 
LU-8i-ta'ni-ans,    the,    at    war    with 

Home,  199,  200 

Macedonia,  alliance  with  Hannibal. 
175;  territory,  184;  i)olitical  plans. 
ia5;  second  war  with  Rotne,  IS6,  187: 
third  war  with  Rome,  194 ;  made  a 
province, 195 

Ma-cri'nus,  447 

Mae-ce'nas,  .34(5.  317 

Magna  Grae'ci-a  (see  Greek  Set- 
tlements in  Italy) 

Mag-ne'si-a,  battle  of,  IJM) 

Mar-cel'lus,  a  goieral.  175 

Marcellus,  nephew  of  Augustus,  :^5(» 

Mar-co-man'ni,   wars  with  Ronu 

423 
Mar'l-us,  Ga'ius,  defeats  Cimbri  and 
Teutones.    244:    defeats  Jngurtha. 
272;  his  character,  274;  supports  the 


democracy.    275;    aids   Cinna.   283; 
death.  383 

Mas-i-nis'sa,  i8o,  i8i,  202 

Mas-sil'i-a,  241 

Max-en'ti-us.  472 

Max-im'i-an,  461 

Me'di-a,  184 

Mediterranean  Lands,  in  the  West 
acquired  by  Konie.  Ml  i.sj;  in  the 
p:ast,  183-197;  recoutiuered  by  Jus- 
tinian, 539-541 

Mer'cu-ry,  21 

Mes-sa'na,  154 

Mes-si'na.  Strait  of,  163, 165 

Met-a-pon'tum,  11 

Me-tau'ru8,  battle  on  the,  176 

Mi-ner'va,  21 

Min-tur'nae,  77 

Mi-nu  ci-us  Fe'lix,  Mar'cus,  440 

Mi-nu'rus,  2(K) 

Mith-ri-da'te§  the  Great,  his  wars 
with  Rome,  ,248,  250 

Mo-ham'med,  5<);i  564 

Mo-ham'me-dans,  the,  their  con- 
(fuests,  .5^5,  ,566;  defeated  at  Toinvs, 
567 

Monarchy,   the,  powers  of  the  king, 

50;  his  attendants,  51;  insignia,  51; 

the  dyarchy  given  up,  :{9I,  159 
Monasticism,    appearance    of,   .520; 

life  of  the  monks,  521-523;  legacy  to 

tlic  modern  world,  52:i 
Money,  system  of  l>arter,  21;  copi)er 

and  .silver  coins,  i:i:i 
Mon'te  Cas-si'no,  522 
Mun'da,  battle  of,  \m 
Mut'i-na,  165,  316 
My'lae,  battle  of,  i.5s 

Nae'vi-us,  Gnae'us,  writer  of  epic 
poetry,  43.  238 

Nar-cis'sus,  426 

Nar'ni-a,  75 

Nar'se§,  518 

Navy,  Roman.  onrani/,«>.i.  78;  weak- 
ne.ss  in  264  B.( :.,  H 1 ;  naw  of  im  B.C. 
156 

Nep'e-te,  66 

Nep'os,  ;i:it» 

Nero,  his  artistic  ta>ies.  :?6t;  the 
great  lire.  365;  treatment  of  the 
Christians, 366;  death.  367;  the  prov- 
inces under  him,  368 

Ner'va,  399, 400 


300 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


<  Rfffrene^a  are  to  sectirtnx) 
Neu'8trl-a.  560.  wii 
New  Carthage.  Carthaginian cupitul 

in  Sjiain.  169 
Nl-cae'a,  474 
Nic-o-me'di-a,  m,  m 
Nobility,  the  (orNo-bil'i-taa).  oHk- 

inatrs,  l:i7;  controls  the  M-nate.  1:8 
Nor' i- cum,  42:] 

No-vel'lae.  th.-  (see  the  Code) 
Nu-man'ti-a,  warwitti  ifom*-,  201 
Nu'ma  Pom-pil'i-u8,  hh 
Nu-mid'i-a.  180,  181.271,273 
Nu'ml-tor.  37 

Oc-ta'vi-a,  wife  of  Nero,  3rt4 
0c-ta'vl-U8,  the  colleague  of  Tilx-ri- 

II-.  <  ;r;urh  lis.  2*il 
Octa'/ius,  an  aristocr:itie  consii 
Octavius  (or  Oc-ta-vl-a'nus),     •  > 

Augustus 
O-dae-na'thuB,  45! 
Od-o-a'cer  (or  Od-o-va'kar).   -U). 

.'i:k 
Office,  term  of.  see  p.  289 
O-res'tes,  505  \ 

OTi-cum,  3U4 
OB'can,  13 
Os'ti-a,  408 
Os'tro-gOths,  tl>»',  aiip»-.'ir;.nt r.  in 

Italy.  532;  under  ThwMlon.        '     iri; 

their  disappearance.  530 
O'thO,  377 
OV'id,  the  poet,  :'.4S 

Pa-CU'vi-U8.  writer  of  tratredy.  238 

Pae'stum  (or  Pos-i-do'nl-a).  U 

Pal'a-tine  Hill,  -^5 

Pal-my'ra,4.T  1.452, 458 

Pam-phy'li-a,  193 

Pan'sa,  consul,  316 

Pan'the-on.  the,  419 

Papacy,  the,  its  growth,    -n     '•■':   1  = 
quires  tt'niporal  authority. 

Pa-pl'ni-an,  445 

Par-tlia-mas-pa'tes.  405 

Par'thi-a,   defeats  Crassus.  297;  a«'- 
knowledees    suzerainty   of    R'.riif 
405;  war  with  Marcus  Aur.iii: 
war  with  Septimlus  Severii-^    in 

Pat'res,  52.  53 

Pa-trl'cl-ans,  origin,  53 

Pa-tro'nU8,  relation  to  client,  53 

Pau'lua,  (See  Aemilius) 


Pau'lus,  Di-a'co-nu8, 575 

Pau-sa'ni-as.  44 1 

Pe-lu'si-um,  306 

Pe-na'tes,  27 

Per'ga-mum,  193;  ceded  to  Rome.  205 

Perr-hae-bl'ans.  1H7 

Per'seus,  king  of  Macedonia,  1H4 

Persia,  her  wars  with  Rome,  543 

Per'8i-U8,  the  poet,  372 

Per'ti-nax,  427 

Pes-cen'ni-uB  Nig'er,  428 

Peter,  St.,  525 

Pe-tre'iu8,  »>3 

Pe-tro'ni-u8,  373 

Phar'na-ces,  sou  of  Mithridates,  2.50, 

307 
Phar-sa'lus,  battle  of.  305 
Philip  V  (See  Macedonia) 

Phi-lip'pi,  l)attleof.  320 

Phi-o'tis  (««rPhthi-o'ti8),  187 
Phoe-ni'ci-a,  isi 
Phoe-ni'ci-ans,  the,  150 
Phrjfg'i-a.  u»3 

Pip'pin,  Mayor  of  ih»-  Palace,  r>6<l,  nf.l 
Pip'pin  (grandson  of  the  lasi-int'ii- 

tioned),  becomes  king  of  the  Franks. 

5()8:  assists  the  po]ie,  .569 
Pirates,  the,  of  Illyria,  Itw;  of  Cilicia, 

219 

Pla-cen'tt-a,  165 

Plau'tus,  Titus   Mac'ci-U8,  writer 

of  comedy,  2:W 
Ple-be'ians,  in  the  early  days.  .53; 

opitn'ssrd,  i'^*;  first  secession,  KM'; 
win  the  tribunate,  lOO;  the  tribal 
assembly.  103;  agrarian  questions. 
101;  second  secession,  108,  113;  strug- 
gle for  consulship,  116-122;  win 
quaestorship,  119;  win  other  magis- 
tracies, 136;  see  also  p.  289 

Plin'y  the  Elder,  393 

Plin'y  the  Younger.  4ii 

Plu'tarch.  398 

Po  River,  17 

Political  Institutions,  see  pp   287 

290 

Pol'li-o,  346 

P61-j^b'i-U8,  the  historian,  1.50,  152, 
i'.ti 

Pom-pe'ii  Ipom-pa'yee],  3'<8 

Pom'pey,  Onae'us,  subdues  the 
pirates.  249;  ends  third  Mithridatic 
war,  250;  his  triumph,  251 ;  his  re- 
organization  of  the  East.  252-254; 


INDEX 


301 


{References  are  to  sections.) 
defeats  Sertorius,  29(»;  ((.usul  with 
Crassus.  291 ;  triumvir.  295-299 ;  con- 
test with  Caesar,  300-305;  death,  306 
Pon'ti-a,  77 

Pon'tUS,  247.  248 

Po-pil'ii-an  Way.  th^',  1.37 

Po8'tu-mus,  4,52 

Prae-nes'te,  13 

Prae'tor-ship,  the,  established.  124; 

open  t(j  plebeian.s.  I2rt;  see  also  p 

288 

Pre-to'ri-an  Guard,  the,  .377 
Pro-co'nsul-Bhip,   the.   .established, 

93;  see  alset  p.  288 

Pro-co'pi-us,  545 
Pro-per'ti-us,  348 

Provinces,  the,  .siciiy,  161,  163,  164, 
198;    Sardinia    and    Corsica,     162; 
Spain,  181.  199-201 ;  Macedonia,  195, 
H*6;    Egypt   (a    dependency),    197; 
Africa,  304;  A.sia,  205,  2.54;  western 
Pontus    anil     Bithynia,    2.53,    4t)6; 
Syria,  253;  Me.sopotamia,  Armenia! 
A.ssyria.  40.5.  416, 444:  Dacia,  487 
Provincial    Government,    earliest 
forms,    1(>4,    198,  207 ;  taxes,  207,  218, 
2.54;    evils    of  government,    214-217; 
beneHts,  219,  reaction  on  Rome.  2.Vk 
reforms  of  Caesar,  313;  reforms  of 
Augustus,  ;i36.  ;W:  under  Claudiu.s, 
363;  un.ler  Nero.  368;  under  Trajan,' 
406.   407;   reformed    by   Diocletian. 
4.59-466 

Pru'sa.  406 

Ptol'e-my,  the  geographer.  441 

Ptol'e-my  Phil-op'a-tor.  185 
Pub-li-ca'ni.  248. 2,54 

Pub-lll'i-us  Phi'lo,  Quin'tus.  first 

proconsul,  93;  first  jiraetor.  126 
Pu'bli-us  Va-le'ri-us.  4i 
Pyd'na,  battle  of,  194 

Pyr'rhus,  his  war  with  Rome.  M2-M 

Qua'di,  wars  with  Rome,  423 
Quae'stor-ship,     the,     under     the 

kings,  51;  open  to  plebeians,  119; 

see  also  p.  288 
Quin-til'i-an,  394 
Qui-ri'nal  Hill.  .35, 40 

Rae'ti-a,  423 

Ramnes,  the,  .37.  .54 

Raudine  Plains,  battle  of  the,  244 


Ra-ven'na,  303 

Re'gu-lus,  1.59, 160 

Religion,  sources  of  our  knowledge, 
^5:  naturalized  deities,  26;  national 
deities,  27;  Jupiter,  27;  Juno.  27; 
Mars,  27;  Vesta,  27;  the  Lares  and 
Penates,  27,  237;  great  number  of 
gods,  28;  religious  ceremonies,  29, 
30;  priests,  31 ;  attitude  toward  re- 
ligion, 29;  influence  of  religion,  32; 
changed  by  Greek  influence,  237; 
see  also  Christianity  and  thj 
Mohammedans 

Re'mus,  37 

Representative   Government,  not 

introduced  in  Italy,  28ti:  repre.senta- 
tive   assemblies   in  the  provinces 
369 

Rhe'a  Sil'vi-a,  37 
Rhe'gi-um,  11 
Rhodes,  185 
Ric'i-mer,  .505 
Roads,  137 
Ro'land,  574 

Roman  History,  its  significance,  7; 
summary,  1-5;  no  early  records,  43, 
58;  story  of  the  early  republic,  58 
Rome,    the    city,   as    a    capital,   2; 
natural  commercial  and  political 
centre,  20,  34 ;  growth  of  the  early 
city,  35;  the  Seven  Hills,  35;  date  of 
founding,  36;  mythical  story  of  its 
founding,  37;  plan  of  Servian  city, 
44;  appearance,  45;  improvements 
by  the  Tarquins,  46 ;  aqueducts  in- 
troduced,  i:i6;  improved  by  Augus- 
tus, 340,  341;  taken  by  Alaric,  493; 
the  .seat  of  the  papacy,  526,  527,  550 
Rome,    the    state,   a    city-state,    2; 
changes  in   government,   4;  early 
religi(m,  24-32;  government  under 
the   kings,    50-56;    member   of    the     \ 
Latin  league,  61,  69;  conquers  her       ^ 
neighbors,    62,    63;     wins    central 
Italy,     68-76;     conquers     southern 
Italy,  79-91 ;  government  under  the 
early  republic,  95-1 ;«;  controls  the 
western  Mediterranean,  141-182 -con- 
trols  the    eastern   Mediterranean, 
183  197;  territory  in  133  B.  C„  206; 
method    of  governing    provinces'. 
807,  214-219;  .social  and  economic  re- 
sults of  expansion,  220-237;  political 
results  of  expansion,  255;  reforms 


I 


/, 


:m)2 


irOMAN    HI  STORY 


INDEX 


.303 


( Av/V"'^"""-"  are  to  >'  <//"»>>•  ) 
ofSulhi,  ;;t)fCa  13:  »r 

AiitJtustus.  3;«-3:i<i;  dyarchy  impruc- 
tk-able,  429;  symptoms  <»f  (ifH-line, 
t:')l-4:r.'. .  rrorjxanizatiou  by  DiocU-- 
tian.  i:>i»-i«;6;  "fall"  of  the  empire  hi 
the  W.St,  5(K)-511;  reorffani/.ation 
by  ('luirU'iiias^ne,  .'>71-5T  ais<' 

Summaries 

Ro'mu-lus.  lep'Ti.l  of.  37;  analysis  of 
storv.  12 

Ro'mu-lus  Au-gus'tu-lus.  last  em 
jH-rnr  iri  ili.-  VVt-si ,  :••).').  ftO(i 

RoiKjesval'les.  battle  uf .  571 

Ru-tul'i-ans,  41 

Sa'bine.  ^8 

Sacred  Mount,  thf.  b^f  iris 

Sacred  Way,  H".  <  Via  SacTa),  2r.i 

Sa-gun'tum,  taU.-u  l.y  llainiibal.  irif< 

Sa'li-i,  31 

Sal'lust,  330 

Sam'nites,  the,  location  of.  13;  tb'vi-l- 
opiiirnt.  67;  liisi  Siuiiiiitr  war,  r.H; 
spfoiid  Sumnile  war,  71 ;  battle  of 
the  Caiuliiie  Forks.  71;  thinl  Sam- 
uite  war,  74;  i-t-asons  for  1  tome's 
siuress.72.  Home  s  rout  rol  of  Sum 
Ilium,  76;  last  revolt  :igaiiisi  Horn.', 

Sar'a-cen§,  the.  54«) 

Sardinia,  taken  from  r:.rthat"-.  162 

Sat'rl-cum.  63 

Saxony, .toiHiuered  by  Charleiiiaiiii''. 

573 

Scl'pl-0,  Lu'ci-us  Cor-ne'li-u8,  u«i 
Sci'pi-o  Ae-mi-li-a'nuB.  Pu'bli-uB 

Cor-ne'li-us.  2m.  204 
Sci'pi-o    Af-ri-ca'nus,     Pu'bli-us 

Cor-ne'li-us,  lets  llalinil.al  <'--M^*- 

111)11,176;   hissnrcess  in  Sifain.  177; 

mvades  x\frica,    178,    179;    wins   at 

Zama,  m';  his  death.  192 
Se-ja'nus.  minister  of  Tiberius.  353- 

Se-leu'cl-a,  i«» 

Sena  Gal'li-ca,  74 

Senate,  the,  foundea  by  Romulus, 
:?7;  powris  under  kiu^.  52;  mem- 
bers of  the  early  s.naie  :.»:  how 
chosen,  53;  e<<mi)romise  with  iril.u 
iiate,  125;  usurps  legislative  (lower, 
131,  211;  an  exeluslve  eorix>rath>n, 
312;  its  control  of  magistrates,  313; 


sirenKtheued  by  Sulla,  286 ;  number 
of  seiiaiors  increased  l»y  Caesar. 
312;  under  Augustus,  :«5;  under 
later  emp»-rors.  429;  made  a  muuit-i- 
pal  council.  4«j(i 

Sen'e-ca,  minister  and  writer,  3r.8, 
371 

Sen-ti'num-  battle  of.  75 

Ser-a'pis.  237  • 

Serfdom,  424 

Ser-to'ri-us,  Quin'tus,  2M4,  290 

Ser-vi-li-a'nu8, 199 

Ser'vi-UB  Tul'li-us,  his  wall,  40.  44 ; 
his  or^rani/.aiion  of  the  ;irmy,  4(t,  56 

Se'ti-a.  \-i  '^^ 

Se-ve'rus,  Al-ex-an'der.  447, 4.55 

Se-ve'rus,  Lu'ci-us  Seprtim'i-us, 

made   emperor.    4-.'8;   his   military 

and  let,'al  ref>»rms.  444,  445 
Sex'ti-us.  Lu'ci-us,  121,  122 
Sib'yl-line  Books.  121 

Sicily,    taken     from  Carthage.    I'd, 

_:ov«'rnmeni .  l'"*  I    1 -'^^ 
Si'li-U8lt-ari-CU8,   tlie  p<'et,  3il5 

Sll-va'nus,  iV 

si-no'pe,  406 

Si-nu-es'sa,  i:i.77 

Sip'^-lus  Mountain,  UK) 

Sir'mi-um,  464 

Slavery,  i^i.  123,257,323 

Social  War,  the,  •)77  379 

Societjy,  Roman,  base.l  <.n  the  fami- 
ly aiKl  elaii,  23;  social  •hanges,  r,; 
early  social  classes,  53 

Soc'i-i,  tlie  (or  Allies),  rights,  88; 
I, at  ins  and  other  allies,  91 

Soissons,  iswahs-soii']  battle  of,  5.55 

So-phi'a,  St.,  church  of,  5.38.  545 

Spain,  ileveloped   by  Carthage.  16(i; 
cumiuered  by  Sciido,  177;  ceded  to 
Rome.    IHl :   war  under  Viriathus, 
1l«i,  2(M);   war  at  Xumantia,  2()1  ;  di- 
viiU'd  into  two  i»rovinies, -.'(Hi;  occu- 
pied by   tlie  \  isigoths,  494;   by  the 
Mohammedans,  560 
Bpar'ta.  1^6 
Spar'ta-cus,  290 
Sta'ti-us,  the  poet   3',t5 
Stiri-cbo,  492 
Sti-pen'di-um.  the  207 
Stras'sburg,  battle  of,  5,56 
Su-e-to'ni-us,  the  historian,  438 
Sul'la,  Lu'ci-us  Cor-ne'li-us.  com- 
mands against  Mithridates,  248;  his 


r 


[Rcfeit  /<.  ( „  itt  r  li,  ,sr,  I (itns. ) 
tax   measures.  254:   his   el:araeter, 
274  ;  ends  Social  War,  279;  nins com- 
mand  in  the  Ktst.  282:  overflirows 
the  democracy,  284,  385  ;  his  consti- 
tution. 386.  387;  his  death.  288 
Sul-pic'i-us,    a  democratic   le;ider. 
282 

Sul-pic'i-us  Gal'ba,    Ser'vl-us,   a 

governor  of  Spain.  199 
Summaries,  general  summary,  15; 
description  of  Italy,  33;  events  dnr 
iiig  the  regal  period,  57;  conquest  of 
Italy  '.M  :  .vents  al  home,  .')()9  to  264 
B.C., 140;  conquestof  Mediterranean 
lands,  208  ;  events  at  home,  264  t«»  133 
H.C..  240:  political  residts  of  expan- 
sion, 2.'.5;  the  growih  of  the  procon- 
sulship,  2r)f.  ;!  iionie.  i;',3  to 

49  B.  C,  301  ;  last  days  of  the  repnb- 
lic,    331:    tlie   Julian  emperor  >,   :^76; 
from    \    l»  m  l(.  193,  445;  from  A.  h 
li':-5   t.  ivr:  tlie  WarlKiriaii   inva- 

sions.   W.W  ;    T'oi  ::;nii/  I  l  Mn    of    the 
empire    in    Da-   w  <t;    p<.ljti,;ii 

institutions    of    it..-    r.-puldic,    jij*. 
287-290 

Su'tri-um,  m 

Sy-ag'ri-us,  .555 

Sy'phax,  180 

S5^r'a-cuse,  in  lirst  Punic  war,  l.">4, 
1.5S,  iri:  captured  by  Marcellns, 
!71 

Syria,  territory,  1H4;  politic:iI  i)hu)s. 
185;  war  with  Rome.  189  19j;  treat- 
ment by  Rome,  198;  a  province,  ',^50 

Ta'ci-tus,  the  historian.  410 
Tar-en'tum,      conim-'i-cial      impor- 
tance, 11;  (luariel  with    Rome.  81; 
stunmons  I'yrrlius,  H2,  H3 
Tar-qui'ni-us  Col-la-ti'nus,  4: 
Tarquin  the  Proud,  11  '•   •    •. 

Tar-qui'ni-us  Prls'cua,  an  Ktrus- 

can  king,  .39 
Tar-ra-ci'na,  62  "       : 

Taxes,  in  the  provinces,  207       '  .    t     - 
Tel'lus,  27 

Ter'ence   (Pu'bli-us    Te-ren'ti-as 

A'fer.)  writer  of  comedy,  238 

Te-ren'ti-us  Varro,  Ga'ius,  at  Ca'i*  - 
nae^  172 

Ter-tul'li-an,  a  theologian,  468 
Tet'ri-cus,  4.52 


Teu'to-berg  Forest,  battle  of  the 
339 

Teu'to-nes,    the,    move   southward. 

243;  detcaieilat  Acjnae  Sextiae,  244 
Thap'sus,  battle  of,  307 
The-od'o-ric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 

532. 536 

Tlie-6d'6-ric,  king  of  the  Visigoths, 
.501 

The-o-do'si-us,  491 
Ther-mop'y-lae,  189 
Thes-sa'li-ans,  the,  84 
Thes-sa-lo-ni'ca,  I37 
Thu'ri-i,  11,  80 

Ti-be'ri-us,  the  emperor,  adoption, 
.35(1;  Character,  3rd;  his  reign,  352- 
35«; 

Ti-be'ri-us,  a  governor  of  Africa,  541 

Tiber  River,  34 

Tl-bul'lu8,  the  poet,  348 

Ti-Cl'nus  River,  battle  on  tlie.  170 

Ti-gra'ne§,  king  of  Armeni.i,  248,  2.50 

Ti'gris  River,  20 

Tit'i-es,  the,  .37.54 

Ti'tus,  3S7 

Tog'a,  tlie,  51 

Tours  (or  Poictiers).  battle  <.f,  .567 

Trab'e-a,  5i 

Tra'jan,  reign.  401-408;  wars  with 
Dacia.  ((»3;with  Parthia,  404;  Meso- 
potaania.  Aunenia,  and  A.s.syria 
made  provinces,  405;  his  treatment 
of  the  (  hristians,  407 ;  his  public  im- 
provements, 408 

Tras-i-me'ne,  Lake,  battle  of,  170 
Treaties,  with  the  Latins,  61 ;  with 
theCampanians,  68;  with  the  Sam- 
nifes,  71,  74;  with  Carthage,  92.  161, 
181.  204  ;  with  Hiero,  1.55;  with  Mace- 
donia. 18(1;   with  Syria,    171:   with 

,Mithri^a4e.s,^248,  284;   with  tlie  Da- 
*•    Ci.nfs   •(<♦'''•'•    •  -      -• 

'  Irlb'ira  Kiv^r;VAtt!e  on  the,  170 
Tre'rus  River,  61 

Trib€9,»oariy  (jlrii-fioc;  imoj»3  tribes, 
•    «7f  hm^r  'cWDe,*itcrfit<Jriar;init.  86 
•Tri-ba'MT-an-,  .5U'  •     ' 
Tribunate,  Military,  117 
;  Trii>u]^dte,    ^leWel^rf.  established, 
.     'IX"),  101.*;  C(ihjiiro..i/i*se  A'Uu  the  .sen- 
•    -.lie,  K25 *  limited  In'power  by  Sulla. 
286;  recovers  its  prestige,  291;  iri- 
buniciau  power  taken   by  Caesar, 
.■*12;  see  also  p.  387 


A        m 


304 


ROMAN    HISTORY 


(  n^ftfi-nres  are  to  gecHons.) 
Tri-um'vl-rate.ihetirsi.  296-299;  the 

stH-()U<l,  'M7:\2'2  :  sw  also  p.  288 

Tul'lua  Hos-tl'li-u8.  38 

Ul'fi-laB.  486 

Um'bri-ans,  the,  1(k-hih<ii  of.  13;  no 
purl  ill  tlu'  "^'xial  War,  277 

Val'ens.  489 

Va-le'ri-an,  449 

Valerian  Way,  the,  75, 76,  i:i7 

Va-le'ri-us  Pro'bus,  ;i75 

Vandals,  ili«',  driven  out  <>f  Spain, 
494;  occupy  Africa,  4*t.').  I'm;;  sack 
Konie,"  197;  lose  Africa  to  Justinian, 
.5:19;  Ariaus,  4%,  518 

Varro,  a  writer  auil  general,  303.  326 

Va'ruB,  a  general,  3:^9 

Vec'ti-gal,  the  2<>7 

Ve'ii,  wars  with  Kome,  f^K  t'.2 

Ve'U-trae.  13 

Vel-le'iuB  Pa-ter'cu-lus,  im,  3i9. 

3;.l 

Ven'e-ti,  65 
Ve-nu'sl-a,  75 

Ver-Cln-get'O-riX,  Gallic  leader,  2«5 

Ver'gil.  316 

Ver're§,  a  governor  of  Sicily.  ;'.n» 

Ves-pa'si-an,  pn«ci;iiiiic<i  ♦■miHinr. 
•,m;   his   characif!  his   treat 

ment  of  the  senate,  3wl;  he  ^^ivcs 
citizenship  freely,  3hl ;  war  in  Ger- 
many, 382;  in  Judaea,  383 

Ve-til'i-US,  a  ^'eneral,  199 

Veto  Power,  the,  see  p.  290 

Vic-to-rl'na.  4.'^i7 

Vi-gin-ti-BeX'Vi-ri.  the,  see  l..  2HH 

Vi'mi-nal  Hill,  35. 40 
Vir-l-a'thus,  Lusitanian  leailer,  191* 
Vi9'l-gOtllB»  the,  l^M-aJio';  i>f.  4H5; 
becoiiic  '"liriitii.ui  :'f<^:  *  'Itiwu 
south  v.y  tl/e  Hiki>; -^S.^pKaieOtiii' 
the  Konians  at  Adrianople.  49«):  set- 
tle in  Rom&»«.t«^ri«itory,»4(JW;.  iaU« 

Konie,  4t«U9:t'  *^-P^'l'y/*>P:*»f  ^^^*^ 
Gaul,  494*  helpdrt;,W  AuaA..fi81-5<'!i; 
lose  southern  Spain  to  Justinian. 
541;  lose  ^j:iirl  ton  he  FranK^    r">*<. 


and  Spain  to  the  Mohammedans, 

566 
Vl-tel'll-ua,  3T7.  378 
Vol'acl-anB,  the,  location  of,  13;  ^^ars 

with  Koine,  »'.2 
Vol-Bln'i-i.  85 

Wars    (arranged    chronologically), 
with  Veil,  60;    with   the  Aetiuians 
and  Volsciaus,  63,  63 ;  tirst  Samnile, 
68;  Latin,  69;    second  Samhlte,71; 
third  Samnite,  74;   with  Pyrrhus, 
79-84;   tirst  Punic,  154-161;    Illyrian, 
165;  Gallic.  165;  second  Pimle,  168- 
181;    li.'-t    Macedonian,  175;   second 
Macedonian,   186,  187;    with  Antio- 
chus,189-l91;  third  Macedonian,  194; 
with  Numantia,  201;  third  Punic, 
2U3.  204:  Jugtirthine,  272;  with  the 
Ciuibri  and  Teiitones.  243;   Social 
War,  277-279;  war  with  Mithridates, 
248,250;  between  Mariusand  Sulla, 
282.  284,   2H5;    with  £e' torius.  21K),- 
with  Spartacus,  290;  vat    theGauls. 
245;  beiwien  Caesar  and  the  Pom- 
ix^ans,  302-:i(i9;   between  the  trium- 
virs and  the  republicans,   320;    be- 
tween   Octavlus  and  Antony,  322; 
with  the    clenuans.    339;    between 
\  cNj)usiati  ami  V'ilellius,  378;  with 
the  Jews.  :W3;  with  theDaciaus,403; 
with    Parthia,    404,    422;    with    the 
Marcomanni,  423;     with  Palmyra. 
451 ;  with  the  "Gailie  Empire,  "  452; 
witn    the   (iernians,  531;    between 
Justinian  and  the  West,  539-541 ;  with 
Persia,  542;  of  the  Franks  and  their 
neighbors,  5,58;    with  the  Moham- 
medans, btm,  567;    of  Charlemagne, 
571-574 

Wi(J'u-klnd.  Saxon  hader.  .573 

Wit'i-ge§.540 

Xan-thip'puB.  15'.< 

* 

Zi'-mA,.  bat  tie  of.  180 

Zh'iB.'.  battle  <.f.  :iC'7 

Ze-nob'l-a,  queen  of  Palmyra.  451, 

4*8 


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